The History of Europe and the Church

FOR three decades the illustrious Charlemagne has lain in his grave at Aachen. The great Emperor had revived the tradition of the Roman Caesars, and shown Europeans the ideal of a unified Christian Empire in the West.

But Charlemagne's New Europe is not destined to endure. His descendants have little of his genius. Charlemagne's quarrelsome grandsons finally settle their differences; first with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, then in 870 with the Treaty of Mersen. The treaties partition Charlemagne's Empire, foreshadowing the modern geography of Western Europe. In its wake, a French realm and a German realm will slowly begin to crystallize.

But for the moment the domains of the once-great Carolingian Empire further disintegrate into warring principalities and kingdoms. The political unity forged by Charlemagne goes completely to pieces. Europe is a shambles.

Europe's political weakness tempts outside powers, notably Norsemen, Slays, Magyars and Saracens. Destructive raids from the north, east and south place the vulnerable continent in imminent jeopardy. The Papacy, too, has sunk to a miserable condition. Several Popes openly lead corrupt lives and are widely despised by devout Catholic and non-Catholic alike. Battered and torn by invasions and civil strife, Western civilization appears to be on a fast slide downward. Throughout Europe the general mood is one of apprehension and foreboding.

A great-grandson of Charlemagne is crowned Emperor by the Pope in 915. After his death in 924, there is an imperial vacancy for nearly four decades. Something must be done and quickly — to rescue Europe. Who will resist the barbarian invaders and reimpose order on the fragmented West? The answer will come from northeast of the Rhine — from the evolving power of Germany.

There is no Emperor. But in Germany, kings still rule. The geographical territory of Germany has become the dominant region of Europe. In 918 the rulers of the great German duchies choose Henry the Fowler, duke of the Saxons, as their king. He is called Fowler because he was laying bird snares when informed of his election. Henry is founder of the Saxon dynasty of kings, which will rule until 1024. He strengthens the German army and confronts the many invaders threatening Europe. Upon Henry's death in 936, his 24-year-old son Otto is elected king by the German dukes. The people raise their right hands to show approval. "Sieg und Heil !" they shout — "Victory and Salvation !"

The archbishops of Mainz and Cologne crown Otto and hand him the imperial sword with which to fight the enemies of Christ. Otto quickly consolidates the German realm by suppressing rebellious nobles and ambitious relatives. By bringing the duchies under centralized control, he unites Germany under his rule. Otto also intervenes in Italian affairs. In 951 he marches into war-torn Italy to assist Adelheid (Adelaide), the widow of an Italian king being abused by her husband's successor. Otto declares himself king of the Lombards and marries Adelheid, thereby becoming ruler of northern Italy.

In August 955, Otto halts an invasion of the pagan Magyars (Hungarians), who have been conducting annual raids on Germany for a few decades. In this momentous Battle of Lechfeld (Augsburg), he delivers a decisive blow to the invaders. The Magyar menace is ended, they raid no more. Otto can now rightfully claim the title "protector of Europe." He is widely viewed as another Charles Martel, who stopped the Islamic Saracen advance in Western Europe in A.D. 732. Otto was, in fact, a descendant of Charles Martel and of Charlemagne.

Meanwhile, the Papacy continues in tragic decline. Sergius III. (904-911) gains the papal chair through murder and lives openly with the prostitute Marozia. Their illegitimate son becomes Pope John XI. (931-935). Under Pope John XII. (955-964), the Lateran palace becomes a literal brothel.

Rome, and all Italy, are in chaos. Pope John XII. appeals to Otto to restore order to the peninsula and to assist him against his adversaries. In 961 Otto sweeps into Italy and defeats the enemies of the Pope. Pope John recognizes Otto's position in Europe by crowning him Holy Roman Ernperor on February 2, 962. Not since that historic Christman Day in AD. 800, when the Western Roman Empire was restored by the coronation of Charlemagne, has an event of such magnitude occurred.

Western Europe again has an Emperor !

Charlemagne's Empire is revived in an alliance between Emperor and Church. With the support of the Church, Otto reigns supreme throughout Western Christendom over the German Reich, or Empire.

The year 962 marks the restoration of the imperial tradition. Later historians will view it as the beginning of what would later be officially styled the Sacrum Roman urn Jmperiurn Nationis Germanicae — the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation." (The full term will not be officially applied until the 15^th century.)

Throughout the Middle Ages, the imperial title and German kingship will remain indissolubly united. It will be the kings of the Germans, crowned by the Pope, who will henceforth be named Holy Roman Emperors. Germany is the heart and core — the power center — of the Empire.

The octagonal imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire is made especially for the coronation of Otto in 962. For centuries to come, it will be the very symbol of the concept of European unity.

Shortly after his coronation, Otto issues his controversial Privilegium Ottonianum, ordering Pope John to take an oath of obedience to him. The Pope rebels, and conspires with Otto's enemies. Late in 963 Otto calls a council at St. Peter's in Rome, which deposes John for conspiracy and misconduct. Otto's own candidate is now elected Pope in his place. Otto believes it is his duty to preserve and strengthen Church institutions. He seeks to use the Church as a stabilizing influence in Europe. But he also wants the Church subordinate to the authority of the Empire.

On May 7, 973, Otto the Great dies and is buried in Magdeburg. He leaves a peaceful and secure Empire. His son Otto II. (973-983) succeeds him. Otto III. — son of Otto II. — is crowned as German king at Aachen late in 983. He is but 3 years old, so his mother and grandmother serve as regents. The king comes of age in 994. Two years later he answers an appeal by Pope John XV. and puts down a rebellion in Italy. By the time he reaches Rome, the Pope is dead. Otto then secures the election of his cousin, Bruno of Carinthia, as Gregory V. He is the first German Pope.

On May 21, 996, Otto is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Gregory. Otto makes Rome the administrative center of the Empire and spends much of his time there. In 998 Otto sets on his seal the inscription, Renovatio imperii Romanorum — "Restoration of the Empire of the Romans." Roman ideals are still strong in Western Europe. Otto realizes that the united Europe he and his dynasty have envisioned must have a worthy religious head. The Papacy must be raised to a position of European esteem. Its influence must be revived.

When Pope Gregory V. dies in 999, Otto nominates his former teacher, the scholar Gerbert of Aurillac. Gerbert becomes Pope, with the name Sylvester II. He is the first French Pope. Both Sylvester and Otto dream of an Empire in which Emperor and Pope would serve as joint heads of a unified entity. Gerbert strives to raise the reputation of the Papacy throughout Europe. He denounces some of his unworthy predecessors as "monsters of more than human iniquity," and as "Antichrist, sitting in the temple of God and playing the part of God." Otto hopes for a harmonious alliance of future Emperors and Popes. But it is not to be so.

Henry II. (1002-1024) is the last of the Saxon rulers of Germany. At his death, Conrad II., duke of Franconia, receives the imperial crown. Conrad II. (1024-1039) is the first Franconian or Salian German Emperor. His reign begins what later historians will call the great period of the Holy Roman Empire. The reign of Conrad's son Henry III. (1039-1056) marks the zenith of German imperial power.

It is during the reign of Henry III. as Holy Roman Emperor that the final schism between the Westerm (Roman) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches takes place. The break had existed for centuries and had grown progressively wider. In 1054 it becomes formal and complete when the Pope at Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicate each other. Not long afterward comes another important development in the religious sphere. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II. convenes the Lateran which decrees that future Popes will be elected by a college (group or body) of cardinals. This action takes away the Emperor's influence in Papal elections. The decree of the Lateran Council sparks a major rupture between Germany and Rome. Now begins the great medieval struggle between the Empire and Papacy.

Henry III. is succeeded by his young five year old son Henry IV. (1056-1106). He will play a mojor role in one of the most famous episodes in medieval history — a personal confrontation between Pope and Emperor. The Archbishop Hanno of Cologne had once kidnapped the boy-king from his mother. Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen eventually secured the golden boy; then Archbishop Hanno recovered the royal pawn again. These were the two leading prelates of Germany and it is said about them; both were fierce and ambitious bishops who hesitated at nothing to attain their end, whether by fraud or violence.

The crowning of Charlemagne in AD. 800 by Pope Leo III. had initiated a close alliance between Pope and Empire. This "marriage" had formally linked the spiritual power of the Pope with the temporal power of the Emperor. The Empire is thereafter regarded as God's chosen political organization over Western Christendom. The Church at Rome is viewed as God's chosen instrument in religious matters. Pope and Emperor are regarded as God's appointed vice-regents on earth. This concept perhaps will be best summarized late in the 19^th century by Pope Leo XIII.:

This intimate alliance of Church and State serves the needs of both institutions. The Empire exercises its political and military powers to defend religion and enforce religious uniformity. The Church, in turn, acts as a "glue" for Europe, holding together the differing nationalities and cultures within the Empire by the tie of common religion.

As Leo XIII. will also note in retrospect,

This harmonious ideal in Church-State relations, however, is never completely realized. The respective powers and privileges of Church and Empire are not clearly defined. The result is frequent conflict between Emperor and Pope for the leadership of Christian Europe.

Pope Gregory VII. comes to the Papal throne in 1073. He leaves no doubt as to his position. "The Pope is the master of Emperors!" he declares. A stern idealist, Gregory is determined to subordinate the authority of the Emperor to that of the Pope. Gregory insists that the Pope is above all nations and independent of every temporal sovereign, responsible only to God. The supremacy of Church over Empire, he asserts, is symbolized by the traditional crowning of the Holy Roman Emperors by the Popes in Rome — publicly demonstrating that all political power comes from God by way of the Roman Pontiff.

Henry IV is not impressed by such arguments. He becomes embroiled in a bitter dispute with Pope Gregory. The controversy focuses on an issue that has been a continuing irritant in Church-State relations: lay investiture. The question is whether secular rulers should be able to appoint bishops and abbots and invest them with symbols of spiritual authority. Emperors have long used — and abused — such control over Church offices to their own ends. Gregory wants it to stop.

Henry defies the Pope, denounces him and attempts to have him deposed. The headstrong Henry ends a letter to Pope Gregory with the curse, "Down, down, to be damned through all the ages!" Gregory is not intimidated. The controversy now escalates. It is a life-and-death struggle between the Papacy and German imperial power! Gregory is determined to free the Church from secular control. He finally excommunicates the unyielding Henry. This action absolves all Henry's subjects from their oaths of allegiance to the Emperor, and triggers a baronial revolt in Germany.

Henry's demise appears imminent. He now sees clearly that imperial power depends on the support of the Church. To save his throne, Henry must make peace with the Pope. In January 1077, Henry journeys to a castle at Canossa in northern Italy where Pope Gregory is temporarily staying. For three days the Emperor humiliates himself by standing barefoot and in sackcloth in the snow outside Gregory's window. Gregory finally grants absolution, and Henry is reconciled to the Church.

The imperial capitulation at Canossa comes to symbolize the submission of the State to the Church. But it is only a temporary victory for the Church. Soon after Canossa, the struggle breaks out again. In 1122 the Concordat of Worms ends a bitter contest between Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (1106-1125) — Henry IV.'s son — and Pope Calixtus II. (1119-1124). It settles the Investiture Controversy by stipulating that an Emperor can still nominate bishops and abbots, but the clergy will do the actual choosing and can refuse approval of an Emperor's nominees. Emperors are permitted to confer upon new bishops only the temporal insignia of their offices, due them in their position as vassals of the crown. The spiritual symbols the ring and staff — can be bestowed only by the Church.

Even after this compromise, the struggle for supremacy between Empire and Papacy will continue for centuries. But despite their incessant rivalry, the Papacy and Empire will remain closely associated throughout the Middle Ages. Their mutual need for each other will override disagreements of lesser importance.

The power and influence of the Papacy at this time is evidenced by the popular reaction to the Papal call, late in 1095, for the First Crusade. Pope Urban II exhorts Christians throughout Europe to come to the aid of the Byzantine Emperor, who is threatened by advancing Turks, and to free holy Jerusalem from the "legions of Antichrist" the Moslems. Reaction to Urban's plea is extraordinary. The outpouring of popular enthusiasm for the cause sets in motion a succession of military expeditions to the Holy Land that will continue for two centuries before ending in dismal failure. And for a time, the prestige of the Papacy is greatly enhanced by this wave of religious fervor.

But the prestige and power of the Holy Roman Emperor has taken a turn for the worst. The Emperor's power has been seriously weakened by the lay investiture struggle. With the death of Henry V. in 1125, Germany and the Empire are beset by civil strife and chaos. Many fear the Empire will fall completely to pieces.

Two rival dynasties of German nobles scramble to gain the imperial throne — the Welfs (or Guelphs) and the Hohenstaufens. The Hohenstaufens are descended from Henry IV. in the female line. Finally, in 1138, Conrad III. comes to the German throne. Conrad — a grandson of Henry IV and nephew of Henry V. — is the first king of the Hohenstaufen family. The Hohenstaufens will preside over the Empire until 1268.

Conrad is followed, in 1152, by his nephew Frederick, who will be known to history as Frederick I. Barbarossa ("Red Beard"). Frederick is formally crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV. in Rome on June 18, 1155. He will reign for nearly four decades. Frederick Barbarossa considers himself the spiritual heir of his predecessors, Charlemagne and Otto the Great (from whom he is also descended physically), and of the great imperial tradition. His desire is to restore the glory of the Roman Empire. As a later chronicler will observe,

Frederick imposes order on Germany, and intervenes in Italian and Papal politics. This sparks a renewal of the imperial conflict with the Papacy in the form of a bitter feud with Pope Adrian. As had many of his predecessors, Frederick seeks to make the Church subordinate to the authority of the Empire. When asked from whom his imperial office is received, Frederick declares to Papal legates,

Frederick realizes, however, that a full-blown feud with Rome could have disastrous consequences.

In 1177 he publicly makes peace with Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III. But the peace is to be short-lived.

Emperor Frederick Barbarossa dies by accidental drowning in 1190, while leading the Third Crusade. His son, Emperor Henry VI. (1190-1197), further strengthens the Hohenstaufen Empire. But after his death, civil war erupts in Germany. In 1212 a new German king finally emerges from the chaos. He is Frederick II., Frederick Barbarossa's grandson. In 1215 Frederick II. is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III. It is under Innocent III. (1198-1216) that the Church reaches the height of its medieval power. Virtually every European nation feels the power of this Pope. Innocent seeks to reduce the Empire to a plaything of the Pope. He asserts that kings derive their powers from the Pope, just as the moon derives its light from the sun. Innocent declares that the Pope is

Emperor Frederick II. does not openly quarrel with Innocent III. He does, however, wage a fierce struggle with later Popes, notably Gregory IX. (1227-1241). Frederick's ambition is to rule all of Italy, including Rome. This desire for full control of Italy brings him into direct conflict with the Papacy. Frederick is finally excommunicated by Pope Gregory, who calls the Emperor a heretic and the personification of Antichrist.

Frederick lashes back, labeling Pope Gregory the Antichrist. "The Roman Church has never erred," Gregory counters. "To resist it is to resist God!"

The Papacy and the "viper brood" of Hohenstaufens are locked in a mortal struggle. In its wake, the last remnants of imperial power will be damaged almost beyond repair.

Frederick II. dies in 1250. He is the last of the great Hohenstaufens. With his death, the Empire crumbles. The last of the German Hohenstaufen dynasty is Conradin, grandson of Frederick II., whose father Conrad IV. is excommunicated in 1254 and dies of malaria that same year, Conradin is only two.

The long confrontation with the late Hohenstaufen Frederick II. devolves into interurban struggles between nominally pro-Imperial Ghibellines and even more nominally pro-papal Guelf factions, in which Frederick II.'s heir Manfred, a son of Frederick II. and uncle to Conradin, is immersed. Any Hohenstaufen in Sicily is bound to have claims over the cities of Lombardy, and as a check to Manfred, Pope Urban IV., 1261-1264, introduces Charles of Anjou into the equation, to place the crown of the Two Sicilies in the hands of a monarch amenable to papal control. For two years Urban IV. negotiates with Manfred regarding whether Manfred will aid the Latins in regaining Constantinople in return for papal confirmation of the Hohenstaufen rights. Meanwhile the papal pact solidifies with Charles. Charles promises to restore the annual census or feudal tribute due the Pope as overlord, some 10,000 ounces of gold being agreed upon, while the Pope will work to block Conradin from election as King of the Germans. Pope Urban IV. writes a letter suggesting that by "immemorial custom", seven princes have the right to elect the King and future Emperor.

In 1265 the new Pope, Clement IV., forms an alliance with Charles of Anjou, the brother of the king of France, in which he offers Charles the kingdom of Sicily as a reward for ridding Italy of the Hohenstaufens. By 1268 the Hohenstaufen forces are defeated. Young Conradin, at the age of 16 is beheaded in the public marketplace at Naples with his 19 year old friend Frederick I. of Baden who had years earlier fled his fief for fear of his safety from the king of Bohemia.

The Papacy has won its victory over the Hohenstaufens. The dynasty is extinct. But the Papal victory has brought political instability to Germany. Germany becomes more a geographical term than a nation. It is a loose confederation of separate princes. The German king has become one of the weakest rulers on the Continent. The Great Interregnum (1254-1273), as this period will be known to history, is a stormy and confused period. It is the kaiserlose, schreckliche Zeit "the terrible time without an emperor." Western Europe is now about to enter a new phase. The Great Interregnum comes to an end in 1273. In that year, the imperial crown is revived and given to the Austrian Count Rudolf of Habsburg. The Empire now has an Austrian head.

Rudolf's ancestors — of Trojan and Merovingian descent — had built a family castle in Switzerland in the 11^th century. They had called it Habichtsburg — Castle of the Hawk. Hence, the word Habsburg. Rudolf is the first Habsburg to ascend the imperial throne. He will succeed in establishing some degree of order within the Empire. The House of Habsburg will play a leading role in European affairs for centuries to come. The ideal of universal rule — unity under a single authority — is by no means dead.

THE TWO decades of anarchy known as the "Great Interregnum" (1254-1273) leave Germany in political ruins. It is the "terrible time without an emperor" or as the Germans word it, die kaiserlose, schreckliche Zeit.

A new period of German history begins when the German princes assemble at Frankfurt in the early autumn of 1273 and elect a Swiss count as German king. He is Rudolf of Habsburg. Three weeks later — on October 24, 1273, Rudolf is crowned at the city of Aachen, Charlemagne's old capital. Late the following year he is recognized by Pope Gregory X.

Rudolf is the first Habsburg to hold the office of Holy Roman Emperor, though French influence in Rome prevents him from being officially crowned as such by the Pope. Rudolf rebuilds Germany from the ruins left by the Great Interregnum. He suppresses the lawless robber knights at home and restores German prestige abroad. He also consolidates and adds to Habsburg ancestral lands, laying a solid foundation for future Habsburg greatness.

The major development in this regard comes in 1278, when Rudolf drives the non-German Ottocar, king of Bohemia, from Austria. Additionally, he made his twelve-year-old son Rudolf Duke of Swabia, which had been without a ruler since Conradin's execution. This victory establishes the Habsburg dynasty as the territorial rulers of Austria, which emerges as one of the most powerful of the German states. It will become the territorial nucleus of future Habsburg power.

Rudolf I of Habsburg dies in July 1291. The German Imperial Electors — German princes who take part in choosing the Emperor — are concerned over the rapid rise of the Habsburgs. They therefore refuse to recognize the claims of Rudolf's son, and instead recognize Adolf of Nassau as king of Germany. A century and a half will pass before the next Habsburg sits on the imperial throne.

Meanwhile, in 1355, Charles IV. of Luxembourg (now the German king and king of Bohemia) receives the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in Rome. In an effort to check growing political disorder, he issues the following year an imperial edict known as the "Golden Bull." This document spells out a precise procedure for the election and coronation of a German king.

Seven German nobles called Kurfürsten, Prince-electors, including the Duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, the King of Bohemia, Count Palatine of the Rhine, and the archbishops of Trier, Cologne and Mainz will henceforth determine who is to be king of the Germans — the "king to be promoted emperor". Election is to be by majority vote. The Golden Bull becomes the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, and will remain its fundamental law for 4½ centuries, until 1806.

Noticeably absent in the Golden Bull is a role for the Papacy. Papal confirmation is no longer a necessity in the election process. Things have deteriorated rapidly since the pontificate of Innocent III., when the Church seemed unassailable in its prestige and power. Some years before the Golden Bull, Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) is sensing a rising national consciousness and development of a new type of secular authority in Western Europe. He realizes this could be dangerous to the Church and attempts to reassert Papal power over the new forces of nationalism.

His bull Clericis Laicos (1296) forbids kings, under penalty of excommunication, to tax the clergy without Rome's consent. In another bull, Unam Sanctum (1302), Boniface asserts that to obtain salvation, every man must be subject to Rome. In the same document, he declares the supremacy of the Pope over all kings:

But this vigorous assertion of Papal power and rights comes too late. By the end of Boniface's reign, the Papacy is no longer able to withstand the growing independence in the secular realm. Unam Sanctum receives violent opposition from many quarters, most notably from Philip the Fair of France. In a letter to Boniface, the French king dares to refer to the pontiff as "Your Supreme Foolishness."

The Papacy is on a downward slide. With each passing year, it becomes clearer to all that the days when the Papacy could command are gone. Now it can only influence and advise.

Because of the unsettling political conditions in Rome, Pope Clement V. (1305-1314) takes up residence at the city of Avignon, a Papal possession in France, in 1305. There he is subject to powerful French influence.

For just more than 70 years — from 1305 to 1377 — the Popes remain at Avignon. The Papacy becomes a tool of the French court. This period will be called the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Church — an allusion to the 70-year exile of the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century B.C. The loss to Papal prestige is enormous. Leadership in Europe has clearly passed from the Pope to secular rulers.

The German princes believe that Rome is the only rightful capital for the Church. Finally, in 1377 Pope Gregory XI. (1370-1378) returns to Rome from Avignon, ending the "Babylonian Captivity." He dies the next year.

Urban VI., an Italian, is elected as Pope by popular demand in 1378. But French cardinals hold that the election of Urban is invalid because of outside pressure on the voters. A Frenchman, Clement VII., is elected Pope and rules from French-dominated Avignon. There are now two Popes ! Each excommunicates the other as the "Antichrist." The states of Europe support one or the other according to political considerations.

The Papacy is rent asunder. Each section of Christendom declares the other "lost." Many are uncertain which claimant actually possesses Papal authority. For nearly four decades, Western Christendom is divided. History will refer to the situation as the "Western Schism" (or "Great Schism" though this term is more often applied to the East–West Schism of 1054). Neither Pope will abdicate. Neither will arbitrate differences.

In 1409, cardinals from both camps meet at the Council of Pisa. They seek to end the schism by deposing both pontiffs and electing a third man, Alexander V. But the two "deposed" Popes refuse to resign. Now there are three claimants to the Papal chair! This intolerable situation is finally rectified in 1417. The Council of Constance deposes the three rival Popes and unanimously elects Pope Martin V. The Great Schism is ended, but the Papacy has suffered irreparable loss of prestige.

By the 15^th century, Germany is a jumble of virtually independent duchies, arch-duchies, margravates, counties and free cities — collectively known as "the Germanies." There is no real "Germany" in a unified sense. The German king reigns, but does little ruling. Otto the Great had started Germany on the way to becoming a strong, unified state, but it did not work out as he had planned.

During the decades of trial for Western Europe and the Church, an influential family has been working quietly behind the scenes. It has added to its ancestral land holdings and consolidated its power base. It is now ready to make its great influence felt. That family is the House of Habsburg. Having been held by members of the House of Luxembourg from 1347 to 1437, the German imperial crown now comes again into the possession of the Habsburgs. In 1438, the Habsburg Albert II of Austria is made king of Germany. He is recognized as Holy Roman Emperor, but is not crowned.

Henceforth, the imperial title will be hereditary in the Habsburg family. Despite this, the office is not legally hereditary, and the heir can not title himself "Emperor" without being personally elected. The House of Habsburg is on its way to becoming the most potent political force in Europe. In 1440, Frederick III., a cousin of the now-deceased Albert II., is named German king. A dozen years later he is crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by the Pope. He will be the last Emperor to be crowned in that city. The deteriorating position of Rome in European affairs is thus further highlighted. Frederick III. has a mysterious royal monogram: the vowels of the alphabet (A.E.I.O.U.). Its meaning? They are the first letters of the words Austriae est imperare orbi universo — "All the world is subject to Austria." The House of Austria — the Habsburg dynasty — has indeed set high goals !

In 1453, the Ottoman Turks under Mohammed the Conqueror capture Byzantium (Constantinople), ending the Eastern Roman Empire. After centuries of decline, the last vestige of the Roman Empire in the East is gone. Many historians will later regard 1453 as the ending date for the Middle Ages.

Maximilian I. of Habsburg, son of Frederick III., becomes Emperor in 1493. He envisions himself as a new Constantine. His mission is to save Christendom from the scourge of the Turks.

By a calculated policy of dynastic marriages, the Habsburgs strengthen and enlarge their power. The marriage of Maximilian to Mary of Burgundy, heiress of the Netherlands, adds the Dutch kingdom to the Habsburg domains. A son of this marriage, Philip, later marries Joanna (Juana), daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Juan, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, marries Maximilian's daughter Margaret, linking Castile and Aragon in Spain with Austria.

It is now the year 1500. A son is born to Joanna and Philip. They name him Charles. To history, he will be Charles V. greatest of Habsburg emperors.

Charles is elected king of Germany in 1519, following the death of his grandfather Maximilian. He is crowned at Aachen in October 1520. At the same time he assumes the title of Roman Emperor-elect. But he is not immediately crowned Holy Roman Emperor. That event will not come for another decade. In the person of Charles the Spanish dominions are united with the Habsburg possessions in the Netherlands, Austria and elsewhere in Europe. Never had any monarch so many possessions!

Charles has more than 60 royal and princely titles, including king of Germany, archduke of Austria, duke of Burgundy, king of Castile and Aragon, king of Hungary — to name just a few. Spain is, in itself, an empire — a global empire, with colonial territories even in the New World. The Empire of Charles V. stretches from Vienna to Peru! Charles declares, "In my realm, the sun never sets." And it is so !

The Habsburgs' holdings constitute the world's first truly great modern empire. Many observers begin to believe that the growth of sovereign nation states might be halted, and a universal Christian empire achieved in Europe! But other forces are already at work that will ultimately thwart this Habsburg dream.

The spirit of the Middle Ages has been one of faith and devotion to institutions. The individual has not been considered very important in the vast scheme of things. But now a change is in the wind. A movement had begun in Italy in the 14^th century known to history as the Renaissance ("rebirth"). It is a great reawakening of interest in the literature and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome. It is marked by a flowering of the arts, a turning toward an appreciation of worldly things and a lively interest in secular affairs. Man is now growing conscious of his own importance. The present world, rather than the "next world," is becoming the chief concern. The Renaissance brings a new spirit — a pagan spirit, as some contemporary critics describe it. It is a questioning and critical spirit, a spirit of skepticism.

Not surprisingly, this new spirit spawns a revolt against time-honored institutions, including the Church. The Church's ideals no longer command the same respect among the population at large. The personal lives of the Popes of this period don't help the situation. Renaissance Popes such as Alexander VI. (1492-1503) — formerly Rodrigo Borgia of the noted Borgia family lead corrupt lives, neglecting affairs of the Church in pursuit of personal pleasures. He fathers four, and possibly five children. Lucrezia, his daughter, has her betrothal and wedding ceremonies at the Vatican Palace. His son Cesare, then only eighteen years old, he made a cardinal; and despite this Cesare wars incessantly for years afterwards.

The critical spirit of the Renaissance spreads from Italy northward to the German universities. There, discontent with ecclesiastical corruption and immorality grows rapidly. And there, early in the 16^th century, religious dissidents finally find a champion.

In 1511, a German monk and educator named Martin Luther makes a pilgrimage to Rome. He is appalled at the corruption and vice he finds so openly practiced there. He has often heard the popular proverb, "If there is a hell, Rome is built over it." Now he believes it.

After his return to Germany, Luther is further disturbed by the practice of selling Papal indulgences, or pardons for sin. The profitable selling of indulgences has become big business in many parts of Europe. On October 31, 1517, Luther nails a document to the door of the court church at Wittenberg, Germany. On it are his "Ninety-Five Theses" in criticism of selling Papal indulgences. The documents are forwarded to Rome. In June 1520, Pope Leo X issues a Papal bull criticizing Luther's teachings.

On December 10, 1520, Luther publicly burns the Papal bull. An ecclesiastical revolution to be known as the Protestant Reformation is now in full swing! It will spread like wildfire over Germany and beyond. Luther is excommunicated in January 1521. Soon afterward, he is summoned by Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, to appear for a hearing before the Diet (assembly) of Worms, a German city on the Rhine. But it is already too late to arrest the movement. The assembly settles nothing. Luther refuses to recant — and Charles declares war on the protestors.

A few of Luther's protestations against the popish indulgences are given, as specimens of the whole.

21. The commissioners of indulgences are in error in saying that, through the indulgence of the Pope, man is delivered from all punishment, and saved.

27. Those persons preach human inventions, who pretend that, at the very moment when the money sounds in the strong box, the soul escapes from purgatory.

28. This is certain: that as soon as the money sounds, avarice and love of gain come in, grow, and multiply. But the assistance and prayers of the church depend only on the will and good pleasure of God.

32. Those who fancy themselves sure of their salvation by indulgences, will go to the devil with those who teach them this doctrine.

36. Every Christian who feels true repentance for his sins, has perfect remission from the punishment and from the sin, without the need of indulgences.

37. Every true Christian, dead or living, is a partaker of all the riches of Christ, or of the church, by the gift of God, and without any letter of indulgence.

46. We must teach Christians, that if they have no superfluity, they are bound to keep for their families wherewith to procure necessaries, and they ought not to waste their money on indulgences.

50. We must teach Christians, that if the Pope knew the exactions of the preachers of indulgences, he would rather that the metropolitan church of St. Peter were burnt to ashes, than see it built up with the skin, the flesh and bones of his flock.

51. We must teach Christians, that the Pope, as in duty bound, would willingly give his own money, though it should be necessary to sell the metropolitan church of St. Peter for the purpose, to the poor people, whom the preachers of indulgences now rob of their last penny.

52. To hope to be saved by indulgences is to hope in lies and vanity; even although the commissioner of indulgences, nay, though even the Pope himself should pledge his own soul in attestation of their efficacy.

German Protestantism gains rapid headway. Many German states sever themselves from the Roman Catholic Church. In 1531, the Lutheran princes within Charles' Empire establish a defensive alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League. A threatened invasion by the Turks prevents Charles from taking immediate action against these "heretic" Lutherans. By 1540, all North Germany is Lutheran.

Luther has demolished the old order. The religious unity of Europe is destroyed! Nations begin to go their separate ways. The Reformation destroys the meaning of the office of Holy Roman Emperor. The Emperor now becomes the head of one party, the Catholics. Though the outward form of the Holy Roman Empire will continue for some centuries, it is never the same again. The political as well as the spiritual muscle of the Papacy is eroded. To counteract the Protestant Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church organizes the "Counter-Reformation." The Council of Trent (1545-63) decrees a thorough reform of the Church and clarifies Catholic doctrine. These efforts eliminate many of the abuses that had triggered the Protestant Reformation, and revitalize the Church in many parts of Europe.

But the Church has plummeted far from the zenith of its power, when Papal authority was felt and feared in every country in Europe. "The wars of religion and the collapse of church unity marked the end of theology as the decisive force in Western civilization," a West German political figure, Franz Josef Strauss, will observe centuries later.

In the meantime, a rather complicated situation has developed in the political arena. Geopolitical events in the early 16^th century revolve around four powerful monarchs: Emperor Charles V., Francis I. of France, Henry VIII. of England, and Suleiman of Turkey.

In the same year Charles was crowned at Aachen (1520), a new Turkish sultan had ascended the throne in Constantinople — Suleiman, known to Turkish history as "the Magnificent." The Ottoman Turks now control the eastern Mediterranean and are viewed as a menace to Christian Europe. But the main foe of the Habsburgs is France. France has emerged as a major continental power and an aggressive antagonist of the German empire. Habsburg power all but surrounds France. In response, Francis I. allies himself with the Islamic Turks and German Protestants, despite the fact that he is a French Catholic king.

In England, Henry VIII. seeks to maintain the balance of power to prevent the domination of Europe by either the Habsburgs or France. He shifts his support from side to side as circumstances require, equalizing the power of the continental rivals.

In 1525, a defensive alliance is created to check growing Habsburg power. It is the Holy League of Cognac, made up of France, the Papal States, Rome and Venice. England supports the new league. Early in 1527, mutinous troops of Charles V. march against the Pope. They enter the defenseless city of Rome and plunder it. This is the infamous sacco di Roma — the Sack of Rome. The Pope, Clement VII., surrenders.

The Pope is ready for a compromise. He makes peace with Charles, and meets with him in Bologna in February 1530. There, Pope Clement crowns Charles Holy Roman Emperor. This is the last time that a Holy Roman Emperor will be crowned by a Pope. Charles believes the Emperor must be supreme if there is to be real peace. But the imperial title is not what it used to be. The Empire has more shadow than substance. Charles' globe-girdling Empire is united only in the sense that it has a common personal ruler. The nation-state is on the rise, and the Empire is torn religiously. Charles is opposed by princes whose own power is stronger when the Emperor is weak.

The very extent of Charles' vast realm is in itself a drawback. There are too many problems in too many places. The political situation is dire. In 1546, open civil war erupts between the Schmalkaldic League and Catholic forces led by Charles. The imperial armies score a victory over the League at Muhlberg in April 1547. But a new war breaks out in 1551. It wears on for four years. In September 1555, the Peace of Augsburg ends the hostilities. This compromise officially sanctions the Lutheran faith in the Empire. Now, the two opposing Christian religious communities can lawfully live together within the Holy Roman Empire side by side. The princes of the territories of the Empire can choose between Lutheranism or Catholicism, each prince's choice being made obligatory for his subjects. Charles' dream of restoring religious unity throughout his dominions has been thwarted. And by further entrenching the power of the princes, the Augsburg settlement reinforces the decentralization of the Germanies.

Disappointed in his ambitions and ill of health, Charles V. abdicates and retires to a monastery in August 1556. He turns over the rule of Spain, the Netherlands and Italian holdings to his son Philip II. To his brother Ferdinand goes the imperial office and Habsburg lands in central Europe. After 35 years' rule, Charles — the last universal Emperor of the West — steps aside. Historians will consider him to have been the greatest monarch to bear the imperial crown since Charlemagne. He dies September 21, 1558.

Charles V. was the last Emperor to actively attempt to realize the medieval ideal of a unified Empire embracing the entire Christian world. Inspired by the concept of a spiritually and politically united Christian realm, he had fought vigorously for a united Church.

More than four centuries after the death of Charles, a 20^th century descendant Otto von Habsburg — will write a biography of his illustrious ancestor. Dr. Habsburg will observe that

	1 - Treaty of Verdun	6 - Two Powers
	2 - Sieg und Heil !	7 - Master of Emperors
	3 - Carolingian Tradition Revived	8 - Pope Versus Emperor
	4 - Stabilizing Influence	9 - “The Beast”
	5 - Schism of 1054	10 - The “Terrible Time”

	1 - Electing a German King	8 - Global Empire
	2 - The “Golden Bull”	9 - New Spirit
	3 - Papal Decline	10 - Ninety-Five Theses
	4 - “Babylonian Captivity”	11 - Religious Unity Destroyed
	5 - Rival Popes	12 - Four Monarchs
	6 - The Habsburgs Return	13 - Holy Roman Emperor
	7 - Dynastic Marriages	14 - Historical Inspiration for Today