The History of Europe And the Church   The Relationship that Shaped the Western World The historic relationship between Europe and the Church is a relationship that has shaped the history of the Western World. Europe stands at a momentous crossroads. Events taking shape there will radically change the face of the continent and world. To properly understand today's news and the events that lie ahead, a grasp of the sweep of European history is essential. Only within an historical context can the events of our time be fully appreciated - which is why this narrative series is written in the historic present to give the reader a sense of being on the scene as momentous events unfold on the stage of history.

The greatest power the world has ever known is trampled in the dust. The Empire that had conquered the world is herself conquered!

Italy is overrun by Germanic tribes. Odoacer, a chieftain of the Germanic Heruli, has deposed the boy-monarch Romulus Augustulus. The great city is without an emperor!

The long and gradual collapse is now complete.
          The ancient world is at an end. The Middle Ages have begun.
                     The stage is now set for momentous events — events that
                               will determine the course of history for centuries to come.

In the East, the old Roman Empire still lives, protected by the almost impregnable walls of Constantinople. There, Zeno sits on the throne of the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. In theory, the German Odoacer accepts the overlordship of Emperor Zeno. Zeno considers Italy one of the administrative divisions of his empire.

In reality, Constantinople has little power west of the Adriatic. Odoacer holds the administration of Italy firmly in his own hands. He is master of the peninsula.

Odoacer perpetuates the Roman form of government, which he admires. He initially encounters little serious opposition from the people of Italy. But Odoacer is an Arian Christian; that is, a Christian who follows the teachings of the scholar Anus. The Italians, by contrast, are Catholics.

The same is true in North Africa. There, the Germanic Vandals have held sway since AD. 429. The Vandals, too, continue and maintain the Roman system of administration within their kingdom.  The Vandals are also Arian Christians. They persecute the Catholics within their realm, often fiercely. The Roman Catholic Church bristles under the feet of the Arian barbarians dominating the West. Since the days of Constantine, the Church had had the wholehearted support of the civil power. Now things have changed radically — for the worst. Something will have to be done about these hated Arian heretics.

In AD. 476 — the same year Odoacer deposes the last Roman emperor — a young noble named Theodoric becomes leader of the Ostrogoths (East Goths). Theodoric quickly becomes the most powerful of the barbarian kings in southeastern Europe.

Zeno, the Eastern emperor, fears the ambitious Theodoric. To prevent the troublesome Ostrogoths from invading his Eastern Empire, Zeno recognizes Theodoric as "king of Italy" in 488. Zeno hopes to appease Theodoric, thereby ridding himself of the Ostrogothic menace.

Theodoric immediately leads 100,000 Ostrogoths into Italy to claim his kingdom from Odoacer. By the autumn of 490, Theodoric has captured nearly the entire peninsula.   But throughout Italy, military garrisons still hold towns for Odoacer. These bastions must be eliminated!

The Germanic Kingdoms and the East Roman Empire in 486.
(click to enlarge)

Though Theodoric is himself attached to the Arian creed, he is supported by the Catholic clergy in Italy. The clergymen feel they will fare better under Theodoric than under Odoacer. Secret orders are sent to the overwhelmingly Catholic citizenry throughout Italy. The Heruli and other soldiers still loyal to Odoacer are to be dealt with once and for all!

The secret of the plot is well kept. It is executed precisely on time. The Heruli are caught completely off guard. Throughout Italy, Catholic civilians set upon the unsuspecting Heruli at a predetermined hour. At ones stroke, the Italian citizenry accomplishes what the Ostrogoths could not. This "sacrificial massacre" (as one contemporary describes it) puts an end to Heruli as a military power once and for all.

Beaten in the field, Odoacer has taken refuge behind the strong fortifications of Ravenna, north of Rome. There he is besieged nearly three years. Early in 493, Odoacer finally surrenders. Theodoric graciously offers to rule Italy jointly with him.   A few days later on March 5, 493 Theodoric invites Odoacer to a banquet. Odoacer accepts — with disastrous consequences. As Odoacer enters the banquet hall, two of Theodoric's men suddenly grasp his arms. Others hidden in ambush rush forward with drawn swords. Apparently they had not been told the identity of their intended victim, for when they see Odoacer standing helpless before them they are panic-stricken !

The soldiers hesitate. Theodoric himself rushes forward to do the job for them. With one powerful blow of his broadsword, Theodoric splits Odoacer in two from his collarbone to his hip! With this piece of treachery, Theodoric becomes the sole and undisputed master of Rome. He establishes a strong Gothic kingdom in Italy. Theodoric, too, has great respect for Roman civilization, and continues the traditional Roman system of government.

But Theodoric and his heirs are Arians. And for this reason, they, too, will have to be uprooted. Theodoric dies in Ravenna on August 30, 526. He has no male issue, so his kingdom is divided among his grandsons. Civil war soon breaks out in Italy — with dire consequences for the Ostrogothic nation.

Europe in the Beginning of the 6^th Century.
(click to enlarge)

Meanwhile, Constantinople is growing in importance. As the western part of the Roman Empire had gradually succumbed to the barbarians, the star of the eastern capital had steadily risen. Emperor Constantine had begun building the magnificent new capital of the Roman Empire in AD. 327. He had called it Nova Roma — "New Rome." It was founded on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. Before Byzantium became New Rome, it had occupied the favored location on the Bosporus for more than 1,000 years.

With the fall of Rome, Constantinople and its emperors carry on the traditions of Roman civilization. Emperor Zeno who had made Theodoric king of Italy — is followed as emperor by Anastasius (491-518). Anastasius is succeeded by Justin (518-527). In August 527 — exactly a year after Theodoric died heirless in Ravenna, a new emperor comes to the throne of the Eastern Empire. The childless Justin is succeeded by his nephew and protégé Justinian. He will rule for nearly four decades.

Justinian is 45 years old. He possesses great intelligence and boundless energy. He is popularly called "the man who never sleeps." Beside Justinian at the helm of state is his beautiful wife and empress, Theodora. Justinian had married her four years earlier, in 523. Theodora is lowborn. In her teens she had been the most salacious performer in the theatre, a former actress and dancer. Her father had been a bear trainer at the Hippodrome circus. Vicious rumor declares her to have once been the most licentious courtesan in the city. Unscrupulous, she had the sleek ferocity of a panther. The truth of these charges will be debated for centuries. Despite her past. Theodora becomes a queen in every sense of the word. Her personal morals as empress will never be called into question. For 21 years, until her death from cancer in 548. she will live with Justinian as his faithful spouse and adviser. Theodora is brilliant, brave and wise. Had she been otherwise, Justinian would not have held his throne. And his historic mission — a mission of the highest significance to the course of history — would never have been realized.

The Germanic Kingdoms and the East Roman Empire in 526
(click to enlarge)

Justinian's career is almost ended before it begins. Constantinople is a sports-minded city. Its people are divided in their allegiance to different charioteers. They are called the Greens and the Blues, according to the color of dress of their favorite jockeys. In January 532, a disturbance breaks out between the two factions. The ringleader of each party is punished. In response, the two rival factions unite in armed revolt against the government. Open violence erupts as the government cracks down on both factions. The city is filled with fire, bloodshed and murder. Thousands are slain in the rioting. The crowd cries out "Nika!" (Greek for "Conquer!"). History will thus record the event as the "Nika Riots."

Justinian's life stands in jeopardy. He decides to abdicate, and prepares to abandon his capital by ship. But at the last moment he is dissuaded by Empress Theodora. In a bold speech, Theodora turns the tide of her husband's fear.

"I will remain, and like the great men of old, regard my throne as a glorious tomb," she declares.

Her firm stand arouses new determination in Justinian. He decides to stand his ground.

 Justinian dispatches Belisarius, his trusted and brilliant general, to the Hippodrome with 3,000 veterans. The riots are decisively suppressed. In one day, Belisarius slaughters 30,000! Justinian's throne is saved. Had the Emperor been toppled, history might have taken a much different course.

Europe in 526.
(click to enlarge)

Justinian is now in a position to pursue his one burning ambition: the recovery of the Western provinces that his predecessors had lost to the barbarians. His dream is to restore the Roman Empire to its full ancient grandeur — under his s own scepter! Justinian sees himself a as rightful ruler of the whole Roe man world. But Justinian realizes that there cannot be unity of empire without unity of religion.

Throughout the Empire — West and East Christianity is established. But the form of Christianity is not the same everywhere. Quarrels over basic articles of faith tear it at the unity of Christendom. Justinian believes that a theological rapprochement will prepare the way for the eventual political reunion of Byzantium and Italy. He views political and ecclesiastical policy as inextricably linked. They are the two major aspects of his envisioned Christian Empire. One of the most divisive religious controversies centers around the old argument about the union of the human and the divine in Jesus Christ. Some believe that Christ had only one nature — a divine one or rather than a combined human and as divine nature, as Catholics believe. They are called "Monophysites" — believers in one nature. The West — led by the Pope in Rome — rejects the Monophysite doctrine, charging that it over stresses the divine in Christ at the expense of the human. In AD. 451, the Council of Chalcedon (held in what is now modern Turkey) condemns Monophysitism as heresy, just as the Council of Nicaea had condemned Arianism in 325.

But Monophysitism persists. The Eastern Church is torn between Catholic orthodoxy and the Monophysite doctrine.   Zeno and his successor Anastasius sympathize with the Monophysites, triggering a schism between Constantinople and Rome. The Monophysites are powerful in the Eastern provinces of Egypt and Syria. The Eastern emperors do not want to endanger their control of these provinces by condemning the doctrine.

Mosaic of the imperial retinue in the choir, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy.
Laid prior to A.D. 547, detail shows Emperor Justinian.
(click to enlarge)

Upon the accession of Justin in 518, good relations are renewed with the Papacy. Communion is reestablished with Rome. The Eastern prelates sign a letter of reconciliation proclaiming the decision of Chalcedon as binding on all Christians and stressing the primacy of the Roman See as the final arbiter of what constitutes the faith.

The authority of Chalcedon is thus renewed. The Eastern and Western churches are, for a time, reconciled, albeit tenuously.  But this does not end the problem. Monophysitism still thrives in many areas. Personally, Justinian is a most zealous supporter of the Council of Chalcedon and the cause of orthodoxy. But he would like to somehow unite the die-hard Monophysites with the Church. He seeks to placate the Monophysites without offending Rome a difficult task. He will have but slight success.

Justinian's efforts are hampered by the sympathies of Empress Theodora. She leans toward the Monophysite position. In 536, Theodora intrigues with Vigilius, a Roman deacon. Succumbing to an impulse of ambition, he agrees to modify Western intransigence toward the Monophysites in exchange for her helping him become Pope. (the Romans had recently elected Pope Silverius (536-37), a son of Pope Hormisdas(514-23); since Pope Agapetus (535-36) who had engaged in a violent quarrel with the Empress had suddenly died, as opponents of the Empress frequently did.)

It is said he gives Theodora a secret guarantee that he will use his papal influence to abolish the Council of Chalcedon. The next year, Vigilius is installed as Pope. But Theodora's hopes of manipulating the Roman See are disappointed. Under many opposing pressures, Vigilius vacillates and fails to offer clear concessions to the Monophysites. For years the problem continues to plague the religious world. The situation grows so acute that Justinian is finally prompted to convoke a general church council. In May 553, the Second Council of Constantinople (the Fifth Ecumenical Council) opens . It has been called in yet another attempt to reconcile the Monophysites. The issues are complex. The Council finally settles on an interpretation that is technically orthodox but leans a bit toward the Monophysite position.

Few are satisfied with this compromise formula. To the Monophysites, the new interpretation is just as unacceptable as the old. Pope Vigilius initially refuses to accept the decrees of the Council. But under pressure he later signs a formal statement (February 554) giving pontifical approbation to the Council's verdict. In return, Justinian grants Vigilius an imperial document known as the Pragmatic Sanction and permits him to return from Constantinople to Rome. Vigilius dies on the way back. A new Pope, Pelagius, is eleeted — with Justinian's insistence.

Justinian's Pragmatic Sanction confirms and increases the Papacy's temporal power, and gives guidelines for regulating civil and ecclesiastical affairs in Rome and Italy. It is issued on August 13, 554. The year 554 will become a decisive date in history for yet another reason — the result of events in the military arena.

For the moment, the Papacy is under the Eastern Emperor's thumb. But it is not destined to remain so. Ultimately, Justinian's efforts in the religious sphere prove fruitless. At his death, the Empire will still be badly divided in its religious belief. The unhealed wounds of reigious strife between the churches of East and West will continue to fester — coming to a head, as we shall see, in the Great Schism of 1054.

While the aforementioned ecclesiastical maneuverings are underway, events are moving swiftly ahead in the political sphere. The persecuted Catholics in North Africa appeal to Justinian to send troops against their Arian andal oppressors. This sparks the short-lived Vandalic Wars. Justinian sends Belisarius — the greatest general of his age to do the job. In 533-34, imperial armies move against the Vandals. Belisarius makes short work of the barbarians. He receives the submission of the Vandal king Gelimer, and North Africa is reincorporated into the Empire.

Phase Two of Justinian's Grand Design follows immediately: the military re-conquest of Italy, the heart and mother province of the Western Empire. The Ostrogoths have played into Justinian's hands. In his latter years, Theodoric had begun to persecute the Catholic Italians. Following his death, Ostrogothic cruelty toward non-Arians intensifies. Italians look for a deliverer to uproot Arianism.

Justinian now has an excuse for invading Italy. He sees himself as God's agent in destroying the barbarian heretics and winning back the lost provinces of the West. If he succeeds in toppling the barbarian usurper from the Western throne, his dream of restoring the Roman Empire will become reality!

Europe and the Barbarian States in the 6^th Century.
(click to enlarge)

In 535, Belisarius fresh from victory in North Africa — arrives in Italy to take on the Ostrogoths. Italy is plunged into war. The fighting will continue for nearly two decades. In 540, Belisarius captures Ravenna and announces the end of the war. But the Goths soon regroup under a new king, Totila, and again take the offensive. City after city falls to Totila, including Rome in 546. (Totila holds the last chariot races in Rome's Circus Maximus in 549.)    In 549, Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople. In 552, Justinian sends a strong force against Totila under the command of General Narses. Totila is defeated and mortally wounded in the summer of 552. His body is placed at the feet of Justinian in Constantinople.

By 554, the Gothic hold is completely broken. The reconquest of the peninsula is complete. Italy is regained! Italy is now firmly in Justinian 's hands. His Pragmatic Sanction of 554 (mentioned previously) officially restores the Italian lands taken by the Ostrogoths. Italy is again an integral part of the Empire. Three barbarian Arian kingdoms have been uprooted and swept away! The deadly wound of AD. 476 is healed! The ancient Roman Empire is revived — restored under the scepter of Justinian. Both "legs" of the Empire — East and West — are now under his personal control. History will memorialize his great achievement as the "Imperial Restoration." It is a milestone in the story of mankind.

Europe and the East Roman Empire 533-600.
(click to enlarge)

Many territories have been regained. During his reign, Justinian has doubled the Empire's extent! The great Emperor dies on November 14, 565. He has lived 83 years and reigned 38. At his death, his restoration is ready to crumble. The resources of the Empire are not sufficient to maintain those territories that have been recovered. The treasury is empty. The army is scattered and ill paid. Within a century after his death, the Empire will have lost more territory than Justinian had gained! Just three years after his death, the Longobardi, or Lombards — a Germanic tribe — invade and conquer half of Italy. Again the Eastem Empire is deprived of the greater portion of the Italian peninsula. The continuing threat of the Empire's traditional enemy to the east, Persia — further saps Byzantium's strength. And soon, the forces unleashed by Mohammed in Arabia will introduce yet another peril. In the meantime, the Roman court of the East will lose much of its Western character.

For these and other reasons, the focus of events will now shift to the West. As the Eastern Empire founders, Papal Rome will turn its eyes toward Western Europe, where the powerful Frankish kingdom is on the rise. Subsequent revivals of the ancient Roman Empire will surface in France, Germany and Austria. The center will shift away from the Mediterranean to the heart of Europe.  But Justinian's efforts are not to be slighted. His reign has signaled a rebirth of imperial greatness. He has been a true Roman emperor, an heir of the Roman Caesars! Much of what will be envisioned and accomplished by later conquerors who build upon the ruins of the Roman Empire will be owed to the memory of the Grand Design of Justinian.

The historical consequences will be major.

Europe around 600.
(click to enlarge)

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JUSTINIAN'S RESTORATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST IN A.D. 554 is a landmark in history.

For a brief moment, both "legs" of the old Roman Empire East and West are under his personal control. But Justinian's history-making restoration barely survives him.

With the great Emperor's death, the Eastern Empire, with its capital at Byzantium, falls into a period of weakness and decline. At home, civil and religious strife tear at the fabric of society. To the east, the Persians renew their wars. To the west, the Germanic Lombards invade and conquer much of Italy.

Justinian's "Imperial Restoration" crumbles into the dustbin of history. Though dying of lethargy, the Eastern Roman Empire, long since known as Byzantium, continues to be recognized as the eastern successor of the old Roman Empire . This weakened eastern leg will stand precariously for another millennium.

Meanwhile, papal Rome turns its eyes toward Western Europe. There, a powerful kingdom to the northwest is on the rise — the kingdom of the Franks. The Franks earlier had settled along the Rhine after migrating up the Danube River. It will be under Frankish tutelage that the western leg of the Roman Empire will rediscover its vitality and strength.

The Frankish tribes are ruled by a royal family of kings known as the Merovingians. The Merovingians claim direct descent from the royal house of ancient Troy. The Merovingian rulers possess an unusual mark of authority. All the kings of this dynasty wear long hair. They believe that their uncut locks are the secret of their kingly power, reminiscent of the nazarite vow of Samson in the Old Testament (Judges 13:5; 16:17; see also Numbers 6:5).

The Merovingian dynasty had been founded by Clodion in AD. 427. But its most famous ruler is Clovis (481-511). Later historians will consider Clovis to have been the founder of the Frankish kingdom.

On December 25, 496, Clovis is baptized a Catholic, along with 3,000 of his own warriors. He thereby becomes the first Catholic king of the Franks and the only orthodox Christian ruler in the West. Upon Clovis' death in 511, his kingdom is divided among his sons, who further enlarge its borders. The Frankish kingdom rapidly becomes the West's most powerful realm. With the passage of time, however, the old line of Frankish kings grows weak. The decadent Merovingian kings succumb to luxurious living. They will be designated by French historians as "les rois fainéants" — "the enfeebled kings." During this period, the real power of the Frankish kingdom lies in the hands of the court chancellors, who are known as major domus regiae, or "mayors of the palace."

Gaule at the Beginning of the Rule of Clovis 481. (click to enlarge)

The Dominions of Clovis Divided Among his Sons after 511. (click to enlarge)

It is now 751. Pepin (or Pippin), surnamed Le Bref ("the Short"), holds the office of mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king. Pepin, of course, is also a German Frank by blood and speech.   Pepin the Short is ambitious. He is not content to be merely the king's chief minister or viceroy. He covets the office of king itself.

Pepin asks Pope Zacharias for an opinion on the legitimacy of his bid. The Pope replies that

"it is better that the man who has the real power should have the title of king instead of the man who has the mere title but no power."

In November 751, Archbishop Boniface, the papal legate, anoints Pepin king of the Franks at a gathering of Frankish nobles in the Merovingian capital at Soissons. Pepin is now "God's anointed" and the Merovingian king Childeric III is deposed and imprisoned. His sacred flowing hair is ritually shorn by the command of Pope Stephen II (752-757). The power of the Merovingians is broken!

Childeric is sent to a monastery for the rest of his days. The Merovingian bloodline, however, will survive, through intermarriage, in the line of the dukes of Hapsburg-Lorraine. The Merovingians have reigned by right of conquest. But Pepin has now assumed the sovereignty in the name of God. He believes it is God's will that his family rule the Franks. Pepin accordingly styles himself rex gratia Dei ("king by the grace of God"), a title retained by his successors. Pepin's new dynasty will be known as the Carolingians. The name derives from Pepin's father, Charles (Carolus) Martel, who had been mayor of the palace before him. It had been Charles Martel ("the Hammer") who saved Europe from the invading Saracens (Muslim Umayyads) at Tours, in France, in October 732. By that momentous victory, the Franks had become widely recognized as the real defenders of Christendom. The Papacy had long since realized that Byzantium could defend no one.

Gaule at the Beginning of the Rule of Charles Martel 714.
(click to enlarge)

The Church now looks to the Carolingians for protection against the Germanic Lombards, who are occupying much of Italy — and want the rest! The situation becomes desperate. As the Lombards threaten Rome, Pope Stephen II sets out across the stormy Alps in November 753. His goal is Pepin's winter camp. The Pope asks Pepin to come to his aid. The Church must be protected from the encroachment of the Lombards!

At the same time, Pope Stephen 7 personally anoints and crowns Pepin, and blesses Pepin's sons and heirs. The Franks answer the call Pepin invades Italy and defeats the Lombards. He then confers the conquered Lombard territory upon the Pope (754). This gift of rescued lands is called the "Donation of Pepin." It cements the alliance between the Carolingians and the Church.

(The Donation of Pepin is not to be confused with the fictitious "Donation of Constantine", a forgery also dating from about this time. This document — whose falsity would not be proved for another 700 years — ostensibly came from the pen of the Emperor Constantine himself early in the fourth century, when he moved to the new capital of Constantinople. The document purports to be an offer from Constantine to Pope Sylvester I and his successors of temporal rulership over Rome, over Italy and over most territories of the Western world! Believed to be genuine, the parchment carries vast implications and bolsters significantly the prestige and authority of the Papacy.)

Growth of Frankish Power from 481 to 814. (click to enlarge)

The Frankish Expansion from 481 to 870. (click to enlarge)

Pepin dies in 768. His sons Charles (Karl) and Carloman jointly succeed to the Frankish throne. In 771, Carloman dies suddenly, and Charles becomes sole king of the Franks. Though only 29 years old Charles is an imposing figure He most literally exudes power and authority!  Charles is 7 feet tall — well over a foot above average height and robust. He is stately and dignified in bearing, but is known for his warmheartedness and charity. He speaks a type of Old High German. But most important, he is a zealous and dedicated Catholic Christian!

Now in undisputed possession of the Frankish throne Charles directs his efforts against the enemies of his kingdom. His great goal is to reestablish the political unity that had existed in Europe before the invasions of the fifth century.

He first launches a campaign against the fierce Saxons, who are threatening his frontiers . The Saxons are the last great pagan German nation. During the next three decades, Charles will wage 18 campaigns in his costly and bitter struggle against the stubborn Saxons. In 804 they will finally be Christianized at the point of the sword and incorporated into his empire. Charles also undertakes campaigns against the Bavarians, Avars, Slays, Bretons, Arabs and 35 numerous other peoples. During his long career, he will conduct 53 expeditions and war against 12 different nations! And in the process he will unite by conquest nearly all the lands of Western Europe into one political unit.

Emperor Charlemagne as portrayed in a 14th-century reliquary
(a container for religious objects) found today in the Cathedral Treasure at Aachen.
Charlemagne revived the tradition of the Roman Caesars and restored the Roman Empire in Western Europe.
(click to enlarge)

Pepin had delivered a crushing defeat to the Lombards, but he had not totally subdued them. The Church is now threatened once more. Rome needs a champion!  In 772, Charles receives an urgent plea for aid from Pope Adrian I, whose territories have been invaded by Desiderius, king of the Lombards. So, Charles crosses the Alps from Geneva with two armies. In 774 he decisively overthrows the kingdom of the Lombards, deposes Desiderius and proclaims himself sovereign of the Lombards.

Charles is now master of Italy! Charles takes the title Rex Francorum et Longobardorum atque Patricius Romanorum ("King of the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans"). The famous "iron crown" of the Lombards which will become one of the great historic symbols of Europe is placed upon Charles' head. It will be used in subsequent centuries by Frederick Barbarossa, Conrad II, Charles V, Napoleon and other sovereigns of Europe.

Charles confirms and expands the Donation made to the Papacy by his father. This territory will later be known as the States of the Church. Italy is again united for the first time in centuries. Charles is heralded as defender of the Church and the guardian of the Christian faith. The Frankish monarchy and the Papacy stand in partnership against the enemies of civilization! Charles is now the most conspicuous ruler in Europe. History will know him as Charlemagne — "Charles the Great."

Charles came, as he shows in his letters, to despise the Pope and to defy him on a point of doctrine; for at that time the use and veneration of statues in the churches was made a doctrinal issue between East and West. “The veneration of images” was the greatest issue in the Church, Charlemagne put his own name to a book in which Roman practice and theory were denounced as sinful, the whole Galliclan Church was got to support him, and the timid protests of the Pope were contemptuously ignored.

The Iron Crown with which Lombard rulers were crowned,
contains an iron ring within, allegedly made from a nail of Christ's cross.

It is 795. There is a new Pope — Leo III. — in Rome. He immediately recognizes Charles as patricius of the Romans. By now, Western Christendom fully recognizes the bishop of Rome as its head. But there are elements within the city of Rome itself that wish to see Leo deposed and another candidate crowned as Pope in his stead.

In the spring of 799, Pope Leo is accused of misconduct. Adultery, perjury and simony are among the charges. He is driven out of Rome by an insurrection, and is granted refuge at the court of Charlemagne, protector of the Holy See. Charlemagne reserves judgment, and has Leo escorted back to Rome. In November 800, Charlemagne himself comes to Rome to investigate the charges. A bishop's commission of inquiry into Leo's conduct is set up. Charlemagne presides over the tribunal.

Pope Leo swears on the Gospels that he is innocent of the crimes alleged against him. The judgment of the tribunal is in his favor. Leo is formally cleared and reinstated on December 23. On the same day, emissaries from Harun al-Rashid, caliph of Baghdad, arrive in Rome with the keys to the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. (Jerusalem lies within the extensive domains of the caliph.) The keys are officially presented to Charlemagne. This act symbolizes the Moslem caliph's recognition of Charlemagne as protector of Christians and Christian properties.

Charlemagne remains in Rome for the Christmas holidays. On Christmas Day, A.D. 800, the king of the Franks attends a service in St. Peter's Basilica on Vatican Hill.  The stage is now set for one of the great scenes of all history. Charlemagne kneels before the altar in worship. There is a dramatic hush in the church. As the great king rises, Pope Leo without warning, suddenly turns around and places a golden crown on the monarch's head! Immediately the assembled people cry in unison:

"Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by God, great and peace-giving Emperor of the Romans!"

The Pope has crowned Charlemagne as imperator Romanorum — "Emperor of the Romans"! Something profound has occurred. The West once more has an emperor! Historians will look back on this as the central event of the entire Middle Ages.

Coronation of Charlemagne in Rome by Pope Leo III in A.D. 800.
(click to enlarge)

The coronation of Charlemagne marks the restoration of the Western Roman Empire — the first revival of Roman Europe since Justinian. Charlemagne is now officially a successor of the Roman emperors. The tradition of the Roman Caesars is revived. In Charlemagne, Western Europe now has a Christian Caesar — a Roman emperor born of German race! The act also demonstrates that the memory of the once-great Roman Empire still lives as a vital tradition in the hearts of Europeans. Historians will view Charlemagne' s coronation as the beginning of what will be known as the Holy Roman Empire. The political foundation of the Middle Ages has been laid !

Charlemagne is ruler of nearly all the territories that had once constituted the Western Roman Empire. He has more than doubled the territory he had inherited from his father and brother. All France, nearly all of Germany and Austria, and all of Italy except the kingdom of Naples are his! Under Charlemagne's scepter Western Europe for the first time in centuries has something approaching unity. A new Roman Empire — a new Europe — has been born !

In 803, Charlemagne will stamp on his seal the words Renovatio Romani Imperii — "Renewal of the Roman Empire."

Europe in the Age of Charlemagne A.D. 800.
(click to enlarge)

There is yet another significance to the events of December 25, A.D. 800. Charlemagne has received the imperial crown at the hands of the Pope! The populace see it as having come from God. The message is clear to all: The imperial crown is a papal gift. The kingdoms of this earth belong to the bishop of Rome; they are his to give and to take away!

This assertion will often be challenged in following centuries, and will have tragic consequences when kings and Popes wage war against each other. But it leaves an indelible impression on the minds of Europeans. Charlemagne has been taken unawares. He is reported to have grumbled that he would not have gone to church on that day if he had known the Pope's intentions.

The Emperor is not unhappy about being emperor. His misgivings are over the manner of the coronation. He has won his empire on the battlefield through military genius; he does not owe it to a Pope. Yet Leo has made it appear so. Whatever his doubts, Charlemagne makes no protest. He quietly accepts the imperial crown from Leo.

The Pope has cleverly executed a "coup." In the eyes of all, the Papacy has been symbolically exalted above the authority of the secular power. A great legal precedent has been set. Charlemagne holds no grudge. Pope and Emperor have too many interests in common to permit ill-feeling to exist. There has been a "marriage" formally linking the spiritual power of the Pope with the temporal power of the Emperor. The two are joint sovereigns on earth.

As head of the recreated empire of the West, Charlemagne presides over a new society born of the union of Roman and German elements. Charlemagne is a German, but he is inspired with the spirit of Rome.

The Emperor organizes his empire on the pattern of the old Roman model. He prizes the traditions of ancient Roman civilization. His Romano-Germanic society will set a precedent for future European monarchs.

Charlemagne's capital is the German city of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). Following his coronation, the Emperor spends the remaining years of his reign there in comparative quiet. He becomes a patron of learning and the arts, importing scholars from throughout Europe to study and teach at his court.

In 812 — two years before his death — Charlemagne receives news from the East. Eastern Emperor Michael I. at Constantinople has swallowed his pride and recognized Charlemagne as co-emperor. The equality of the two halves of the Empire is now official. For all intents and purposes, however, the two "legs" of the Empire are completely autonomous. A plan had been conceived shortly after Charlemagne's coronation to combine his empire with the Byzantine empire through his marriage to the Eastern Empress Irene (780-802). But the plan failed when she was overthrown.

During the last four years of his life, Charlemagne is subject to frequent fevers. On the 28th day of January, in the year 814, the great Emperor dies at nine o'clock in the morning. His death occurs in the 72nd year of his life, and the 47^th of his reign. The Emperor is buried in the church he built at Aachen, sitting upright with sword in hand. His mammoth achievements will be lauded in popular legend and poetry for centuries to come. Charlemagne has not ended an age; he has begun one. He will be called rex pater Europae — "King father of Europe." He has shown all Europeans an ideal. He has bequeathed to them a common cultural and political tradition . Even in the distant 20th century, men will point to his model as a blueprint for European unity. Charlemagne has left his mark on European history as no other man. He has, in large measure, determined the political fate of Western Europe.

Europe at the Death of Charlemagne in 814. (click to enlarge)

The Carolingian and Byzantine Empires in 814. (click to enlarge)

Justinian's "Imperial Restoration" in AD. 554 fell apart almost immediately upon his death. Charlemagne's empire survives him by only one generation. This very cyclical pattern of revival and disintegration will be often repeated in centuries to come.

Charlemagne is succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. The well-meaning but weak Louis is dominated by his wife and by churchmen. He possesses no qualifications for governing the empire to which he succeeds. Louis dies in 840. Civil war then breaks out among his three sons. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun temporarily settles the quarrels among Louis' sons. It divides Charlemagne's empire into three parts — one for each of his grandsons. In 870 the Treaty of Mersen realigns the borders again. In short order, however, Europe crumbles into scattered feudal states. The Carolingian Empire disappears. The political unity of Christian Europe becomes a thing of the past.

In its weakness, Western Europe falls victim to invasions by Northmen, Saracens and Magyars. The Continent is again a political shambles.

The Empire of 814 will be Cut in 3 Pieces a Generation Later. (click to enlarge)

The Carolingian Empire is Divided into 3 for Charlemagne's 3 Grandsons. (click to enlarge)

The Papacy is also in trouble. The Holy See is increasingly torn by factionalism. Intrigue becomes rampant. The papal office is bought and sold and occasionally obtained by murder. The corruption and immorality of the Papacy during this period will prompt later historians to call it a "pornocracy." The infamous "Cadaver Synod" serves as a bizarre illustration of the turmoil in Rome.

The body of former Pope Formosus (891-896) is exhumed by newly elected Pope Stephen VI late in 896 and put on trial, charged with treason! The corpse is dressed in papal regalia, assaulted with questions and accusations, then dragged through the streets of Rome with a mob cheering on !

The next year, Pope Stephen is himself overthrown, imprisoned and strangled. Sergius III, pope from 904 to 911, attains the office after ordering the murder of his predecessor. His life of open sin with the noted prostitute Marozia brings widespread disrepute upon the Papacy. Sergius fathers a number of sons by Marozia, among them the future Pope John XI. Sergius' reign begins a period known as "The Rule of the Harlots."

The Multiple Invasions of Europe in the 9^th Century.
(click to enlarge)

Chaos reigns in Rome — and throughout Europe. The situation is grave. It becomes clear to many that the disunity and weakness in Europe is tied closely to the disunity and weakness of the Church — and vice versa. Perceptive churchmen realize that they must call in a strong prince to again unite Europe. Western civilization must be saved !

With the Frankish realm in eclipse, Rome must look elsewhere for a champion to resurrect the tradition of imperial unity. When the next great Emperor appears in Western Europe in the middle of the 10th century, he will not be a Frank but a Saxon German. As medieval Germany rises to a predominant position in the West, the dignity of the title of Roman Emperor will become permanently connected with that of the king of Germany.

The first German Reich is about to appear on the scene !

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