For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL34352 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ¡ · ¢ ¢ Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress ¡ ¢ The 110th Congress has passed an omnibus farm bill (Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, P.L. 110-246) that will authorize and direct the implementation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) major programs across the spectrum of its mission areas through FY2012. The enacted bill reorganizes the Department's research, extension, and economics mission area, which currently comprises four agencies that separately administer intramural and extramural programs supporting agricultural research and development (R&D). The research title of P.L. 110-246 (Title VII) classifies all current research, extension, and education programs into two groups--capacity programs and competitive programs--based upon the way in which their funding is distributed to recipients. Title VII creates an umbrella coordinating entity known as the Research, Extension, and Education Office (REEO) in Office of the Under Secretary for Research, Education, and Economics, and designates the Under Secretary as the Chief Scientist of USDA. The REEO will coordinate and plan both capacity and competitive programs, as well as USDA-administered intramural (Agricultural Research Service (ARS)) and extramural programs. Extramural programs (both capacity and competitive), currently administered by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES)), will be transferred to a new National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), and CSREES will cease to exist on October 1, 2009. Within the new NIFA, the existing National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program (NRI) will be expanded into an Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI). It will incorporate the purposes of the former Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems (IFAFS), whose authority the new farm bill repeals. The House and Senate versions of the farm bill would have provided $865 million and $160 million, respectively, in mandatory funding for certain research programs over the five-year life of the bill. The enacted bill provides a total of $333 million in mandatory funds for (1) a new specialty crop research initiative ($230 million); (2) research on fresh produce food safety ($25 million); and (3) organic agriculture research ($78 million). The enacted farm bill research title includes major initiatives to provide capacity-building support to Hispanic-serving agricultural colleges and to make them eligible to receive funding through a wider range of grant programs. This report will not be updated. ¡ Background ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Key Issues ................................................................................................................................. 1 Proposals for Change....................................................................................................................... 2 Administration's Proposal......................................................................................................... 2 2002 Farm Bill Task Force Proposal......................................................................................... 2 Land Grant Organization Proposal............................................................................................ 2 Farm Bill Action.............................................................................................................................. 3 House- and Senate-Passed Bills ................................................................................................ 3 Enacted 2008 Farm Bill ............................................................................................................ 5 ¡ Appendix. Comparison of the Research Titles of the House- and Senate-Passed Farm Bills and the Enacted Bill (P.L. 110-246)..................................................................................... 6 Author Contact Information .......................................................................................................... 22 Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... 22 ¡ The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is responsible for conducting agricultural research at the federal level, and for providing partial support for cooperative research, extension, and post-secondary agricultural education programs in the states. This mission area of USDA is called Research, Extension, and Economics (REE). In addition to research in the biological sciences, the mission also includes substantial economic data collection and analysis.1 The state partners are the colleges of agriculture at land grant universities in 50 states and eight U.S. territories, with their affiliated state agricultural experiment stations, schools of forestry and veterinary medicine, and cooperative extension. There also are 18 historically black land grant colleges of agriculture (the 1890 institutions) and more than 30 Native American colleges that gained land grant status in 1994 (referred to as the tribal colleges). Small grant programs have supported agricultural education at Hispanic-serving institutions, and at Alaskan and Hawaiian native-serving institutions. The omnibus farm bill enacted May 22, 2008, also extends eligibility for certain research, education, and extension programs to non-land grant institutions that offer degree programs in agriculture. ¢ USDA differs from other federal research agencies in allocating the majority of its annual research appropriation directly to in-house research (ARS, ERS, and NASS). Most federal science agencies primarily fund extramural research through a competitive, peer-reviewed grant process. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) has recommended for more than a decade that at least 35% of total USDA research money be distributed competitively. When the Academy first made its recommendation in 1989, it determined that less than 6% of USDA's research funding was competitively awarded. In FY2006 it was approximately 14%, according to CRS calculations. The primary and longest-standing mechanisms for distributing annual federal appropriations to the colleges of agriculture at the state land grant universities are contained in the Hatch Act of 1887 (for cooperative research) and Smith-Lever Act of 1914 (for extension activities). Formulas set forth in each of these acts determine how annual federal appropriations are divided among states. The majority of funding for state-level programs, however, comes from state appropriations, competitive grants from USDA and other federal agencies, and private industry. States are required to match Hatch and Smith-Lever formula funds; most states appropriate three to four times the federal allotment. Nonetheless, despite the fact that federal formula funds represent only a small percentage of total funding at the state level, they traditionally have been viewed by state research and extension directors as a very reliable source of support for their core programs. 1 Under the REE mission, the USDA is responsible for conducting agricultural research at the federal level, and for providing partial support for cooperative research, extension, and post-secondary agricultural education programs in the states. The USDA's intramural activities are carried out by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Economic Research Service (ERS), and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). The federally funded extramural activities are managed by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES). For additional background information on the REE mission area, see CRS Report RL33327, Agricultural Research, Education, and Extension: Issues and Background, by Jean M. Rawson. ¡ Congress has set the policies and authorized the funding for USDA's research, education, and extension programs as part of omnibus farm bills since 1977. Permanent authority for most of the programs resides in older laws, but the farm bill renews the authorization for appropriations. To address the challenges posed by the perceived need to increase competitive grants in agriculture, several major proposals released in advance of congressional debate on the research title recommended significant changes in how ARS and CSREES are structured and administered. In the comprehensive farm bill proposal that USDA released in February 2007, the Administration proposed to rename the Research, Education, and Extension mission area the Office of Science, and to merge ARS and CSREES into a single agency conducting both intramural and extramural programs under the leadership of a Chief Scientist. The proposal called for the current formula-funded authorities to be retained. ERS and NASS would be the other two agencies also under the Office of Science. The Administration maintained that an integration of budgets and programs would provide more efficient and effective program implementation and resource allocation. In its call for a unified budget and a single scientific agency, this proposal mirrored some of the key aspects of the land grant system's CREATE-21 proposal (see below).2 In Section 7404 of the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171), Congress commissioned a task force "to conduct a review and evaluation of the merits of establishing one or more National Institutes focused on disciplines important to the progress of food and agricultural sciences," among other things. The task force recommendations, released in July 2004, called for the formation of a National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA) within USDA "to supplement and enhance, not replace, the existing research programs." The task force conceived of the NIFA as a separate entity solely for awarding competitive peer-reviewed grants, and called for an annual budget for the institute to build to $1 billion over a five-year period.3 The task force proposal was reflected in companion House and Senate bills prior to congressional activity on drafting a farm bill (H.R. 2118 (C. Peterson)/S. 971 (Bond)). The bills would have provided mandatory funds for the NIFA starting at $245 million in FY2008 and increasing to $966 million by FY2012. £ The National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges (NASULGC) put forth a comprehensive recommendation for reorganizing the REE system after a nationwide deliberative process within the land grant system. These proposals were reflected in H.R. 2398 (Barrow)/S. 1094 (Stabenow). The key provisions included (1) putting all of USDA's intramural and 2 The full Administration proposal is available online at http://www.usda.gov/documents/07finalfbp.pdf. 3 National Institute for Food and Agriculture: A Proposal, report of the Research, Education, and Economics Task Force of USDA, July 2004. The report is available online at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/Research.htm. ¡ extramural research, education, and extension agencies (including the research arm of the Forest Service) under one administrative body, working with a unified budget; (2) providing $200 million annually in mandatory funds and substantial annual increases in appropriated funds (to 171.5% of the current level of $2.67 billion) in FY2012; and (3) providing opportunities for minority and smaller schools, both land grant and non-land grant, to expand their capacity for agricultural research, education, and extension. The NASULGC proposal, called CREATE-21, was widely but not unanimously endorsed by the colleges of agriculture at the land grant universities.4 In June 2008, the 110th Congress completed action on the 2008 omnibus farm bill, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, P.L. 110-246. This enacted legislation included aspects of proposed changes to the research title of the House-passed (H.R. 2419 and Senate-passed farm bill (introduced as a substitute amendment to H.R. 2419). Both the House and Senate bills drew heavily on the recommendations of USDA and NASULGC.5 The House version called for creating, within the Office of the Under Secretary for Research, Education, and Economics, an overall coordinating organization known as the National Agricultural Research Program Office (NARPO) with six specialized directors.6 NARPO's six subject-area directors would work with the existing National Agricultural Research, Extension, Education, and Economics Advisory Board to coordinate and plan both the capacity and competitive programs of the REE agencies. The directors of NARPO would become the primary program leaders, incorporating the duties of the currently separate ARS and CSREES national program staffs. Additionally, the House bill called for establishing a National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) within CSREES that would oversee extramural competitive research grants only. NIFA would merge USDA's two major competitive grant programs--the National Research Initiative (NRI) and the Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems (IFAFS).7 The NRI portion of the combined program would focus on fundamental, basic research, and receive 60% of the available funding. The IFAFS portion would focus on applied, integrated research, education, and extension projects, and receive 40% of the available funding. The title would reauthorize appropriations for the NRI at $500 million annually through FY2012, and provide for the transfer of IFAFS's mandatory funding.8 4 Both the NASULGC document and the legislative proposals are under the title "Creating Research, Extension, and Teaching Excellence for the 21st Century" or "CREATE-21"; see http://www.create-21.org/. 5 CRS Report RL34696, The 2008 Farm Bill: Major Provisions and Legislative Action, by Renée Johnson et al., presents a side-by-side tabular comparison of current law and the House and Senate bills, including the research titles. 6 NARPO would be composed of individual institutes for (1) renewable energy, natural resources, and environment; (2) food safety, nutrition, and health; (3) plant health and production; (4) animal health and production and animal products; (5) agriculture systems and technology; and (6) agriculture economics and rural communities. 7 IFAFS was authorized in a free-standing agricultural research law in 1998 (P.L. 105-185). 8 The Deficit Reduction Act of 2007 (P.L. 109-171) cancelled the currently authorized annual $200 million in (continued...) ¡ The House bill, in support of a more centralized administration of the agencies, called for the President to submit a unified annual budget reflecting the total amount requested for each of two categories of mission area programs. The first category, called capacity-building programs, would include all of the formula-funded programs, support for research at the tribal colleges, the 1890 colleges, the Hispanic-serving institutions, and other selected programs. The second budget category, called competitive programs (administered by the new NIFA), would reflect the total amount requested for all programs that distribute funds through peer-reviewed, competitive processes. The House bill provided a substantial amount of mandatory research funding, totaling $865 million over the five-year life of the farm bill. The existing Organic Research and Extension Initiative would receive $25 million in total mandatory funds for FY2008-FY2012 and $25 million in annual appropriations authority for FY2009-FY2012. A new Specialty Crop Research Initiative would receive a total of $215 million in mandatory funds in addition to annual appropriations authority of $100 million for FY2008-FY2012. The effort to improve the safety of fresh cut produce would be provided an additional total of $25 million in mandatory funds to supplement the annual appropriation. Also, the House bill preserved mandatory funding of $200 million for IFAFS for FY2010-FY2012. Discretionary programs were maintained largely as in the previous farm bill and most were authorized to receive appropriations of such sums as necessary. The Senate-passed amendment called for terminating CSREES and recasting the agency as the National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The institute would plan, coordinate, and manage all existing extramural USDA research, education, and extension funds (competitive grants, capacity-building grants, and formula funds). The NIFA director would report directly to the Secretary of Agriculture (not through the Under Secretary). The bill explicitly directed the Under Secretary to coordinate research between ARS and NIFA, and to recommend funding for all the programs within USDA's research mission area. The Senate bill provided $160 million in mandatory research funding over the five-year life of the farm bill. This bill would reauthorize the Organic Research and Extension Initiative with $16 million in annual mandatory funds for FY2008-FY2012. A new Specialty Crop Research Initiative would receive $16 million in annual mandatory funds for FY2008-FY2012. Mandatory funds for the Initiative for Future Agricultural and Food Systems (IFAFS, which would be a program within NIFA) would be eliminated and replaced with annual appropriations of such sums as necessary. As with the House bill, discretionary programs were maintained largely as in the previous farm bill and most were authorized to receive appropriations of such sums as necessary. Other new provisions in the both the House and Senate bills included (1) a grant program to help non-land grant public colleges and universities improve their capacity for agricultural research, education, and outreach; (2) establishment of an endowment fund, similar to that established for the tribal colleges, to provide a continuing base of support for Hispanic-serving agricultural colleges; (3) establishment of institutional capacity-building and competitive grant programs for the Hispanic-serving colleges; and (4) a larger commitment to bioenergy and biobased products. (...continued) mandatory funds for IFAFS in FY2007 through FY2009. Funding for the program would resume in FY2010 at $200 million annually unless Congress changes it in the 2007 farm bill. ¡ The enacted 2008 farm bill (Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, P.L. 110-246) reorganizes the Department's research, extension, and economics mission area, which currently comprises four agencies that separately administer intramural and extramural programs supporting agricultural research and development (R&D). The enacted farm bill's research title (Title VII) classifies all current research, extension, and education programs into two groups--capacity programs and competitive programs--based upon the way in which their funding is distributed to recipients. Title VII creates an umbrella coordinating entity known as the Research, Extension, and Education Office (REEO) in Office of the Under Secretary for Research, Education, and Economics, and designates the Under Secretary as the Chief Scientist of USDA. The REEO will coordinate and plan both capacity and competitive programs, as well as USDA-administered intramural (Agricultural Research Service (ARS)) and extramural programs. Extramural programs (both capacity and competitive), currently administered by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES)), will be transferred to a new National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), and CSREES will cease to exist on October 1, 2009. Within the new NIFA, the existing National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program (NRI) will be expanded into an Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI). It will incorporate the purposes of the former Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems (IFAFS), whose authority the new farm bill repeals. The enacted 2008 farm bill also makes changes regarding how some research contracts and grants are awarded, and increases the emphasis on the need for a competitive bid process. For example, the enacted bill switches certain Smith-Lever 3(d) special emphasis extension funds9 from being awarded on a formula basis to competitive bid. Also, in general, the farm bill increased money mostly for research programs that are competitively awarded, such as programs for specialty crops, biomass, and organic production, and also for beginning farmer research programs.10 These changes reflect statements in the conference committee's Manager's Report noting that "the Managers recognize the numerous benefits of competitive research programs and have supported the expansion of funding for these programs." The Manager's Report also "encourage[s] the Department to make every effort to increase support for competitive programs while maintaining the needs of capacity and infrastructure programs when making budgetary decisions."11 The Appendix compares the agricultural research, extension, and education policies set in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171) with the provisions in the House- and Senate-passed versions of H.R. 2419, and the enacted Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-246). 9 Smith-Lever 3(d) funds provide support to State and territory programs in Integrated Pest Management (IPM); Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Farm Safety funds, which support health and safety efforts in the agricultural sector; and National Children, Youth, and Families at Risk, Federally Recognized Tribes Extension Program and Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program, which support the nutritional education needs of the underserved, targeting citizens with limited incomes [7 U.S.C. 343(d)]. 10 A breakout of the major research areas is provided in CSREES budget: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/about/offices/ budget/09_budget_brochure.pdf. 11 Joint Explanatory Statement of the Committee of Conference, Title VII, http://agriculture.house.gov/inside/ Legislation/110/FB/Conf/statement_of_managers.pdf. ]1267 .C.S.U 7[ .llib mraf 2002 eht ni dezirohtuaer ,)581-501 .L.P ,AREERA( 8991 fo tcA mrofeR noitacudE dna ,noisnetxE ,hcraeseR larutlucirgA ]6047 eht ni dezirohtua tsrif saw hcihw .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht 8002YF morf yllaunna ,margorp tnarg dednuf-yrotadnam a noillim 007$ sezirohtuA )SFAFI( 1267 .C.S.U ]5017 .ceS[ .)AFIN( si )SFAFI( smetsyS dooF dna erutlucirgA 7 slaepeR .tnempiuqe hcraeser gnisahcrup ]1047 erutlucirgA dna dooF fo etutitsnI lanoitaN erutuF rof evitaitinI ehT .)i054 .C.S.U rof dna ,hcraeser deilppa dna latnemadnuf .ceS[ .erutlucirgA dna dooF fo etutitsnI eht emoceb ot SEERSC yb deretsinimda 7 snoitairporppa launna yb dednuf ,5691 rof stnarg evititepmoc 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,snoitairporppa launna ni noillim 005$ sezirohtuA ]6047 .ceS[ .epocs .stnarg IRN rof ton ,stnarg SFAFI rof lanoitan fo ton dna cificeps-ytidommoc deriuqer era sdnuf gnihctaM .)stnarg SFAFI ])b(054 .C.S.U 7 IRN ;1267 .C.S.U 7 era taht scipot no stnarg hcraeser dellac eb ot( hcraeser deilppa dna ;)stnarg SFAFI[ .stnarg hcraeser deilppa niatrec rof deilppa rof sdnuf gnihctam %001 dna stnarg IRN dellac eb ot( hcraeser latnemadnuf deriuqer eb yam yeht ;stnarg SFAFI dna tnempiuqe rof sdnuf gnihctam %05 seriuqeR .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ;stnarg hcraeser fo seirogetac owt setaerC IRN rof deriuqer ton era sdnuf gnihctaM )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]0133 .C.S.U 7[ ]5227 .ceS[ .%91 ot stnarg gnihcaet ]7207 .ceS[ .stnarg gnihcaet dna .stnarg dedrawa ylevititepmoc tsuj dna ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser dedrawa ]2317 .ceS[ ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser dedrawa ylevititepmoc ton ,seviecer noitutitsni eht tnarg yna ot era taht snoitutitsni ot sesrubmier .%22 ot %91 morf stsoc tceridni rof %03 ot %91 morf stsoc tceridni tnemesrubmier tsoc tceridni no noitatimil ADSU taht stsoc tceridni fo tnuoma fo tnemesrubmier no noitatimil eht sesiaR fo tnemesrubmier no noitatimil eht sesiaR %91 eht ylppa ot )a(2641 .ceS sdnemA eht stimil APTERAN fo )a(2641 .ceS ]3167 .C.S.U 7[ .stnarg ]1067 .ceS[ .stnarg evititepmoc fo sweiver reep dna ,stnarg noisnetxe dna evititepmoc-non rof sessecorp dna hcraeser evititepmoc-non fo sweiver weiver reep dna tirem yrotadnam eht fo tirem tcudnoc ot SEERSC seriuqer .noisivorp esuoH seteleD .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ,AFIN rednu ,noitaunitnoc eht rof sedivorP )AREERA( tca hcraeser 8991 ehT ]2067 .ceS[ ]343 ,a163 ,1013 .C.S.U 7[ .stnemeriuqer .)noisnetxe ]5057 .ceS[ krow-fo-nalp fo noitatnemelpmi rof( tcA reveL-htimS eht dna ,)hcraeser .ssecorp krow-fo-nalp eht enilmaerts dna ,stnemeriuqer gnitroper ,noissimbus rof( 7881 fo tcA hctaH eht ,APTERAN ot woh no troper a eriuqer ton seod tub ]3057 .ceS[ eht enilmaerts ot woh no ssergnoC rednu sdnuf laredef eviecer ot setats ,krow fo snalp launna fo weiver a seriuqeR .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS rof troper a eraperp ot ADSU seriuqeR morf deriuqer era snalp krow launnA ]343 ,a163 .C.S.U 7[ .ssel si revehcihw ,sdnuf gnihctam etats fo egatnecrep eht eciwt ]3067 .ceS[ .stcejorp noisnetxe ro %52 rehtie ta stcejorp noisnetxe dna hcraeser etatsitlum no dednepxe dna hcraeser etats-itlum no tneps sdnuf eb tsum taht sdnuf alumrof laredef alumrof laredef fo tnuoma muminim eht .noisivorp esuoH seteleD .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN fo tnuoma muminim eht sa %52 steS tes stcA reveL-htimS dna tcA hctaH ehT ]6027 .ceS[ .noitacude rehgih fo snoitutitsni rehto ]2513 .C.S.U 7[ .stnarg noitacude dna ,snoitazinagro tiforpnon ,smargorp rehgih rof elbigile snoitutitsni yradnoces moorssalC 21-K eht ni erutlucirgA edulcni -tsop dna yradnoces dna ,tnemllorne ]7007 .ceS[ ot noitacude secneics larutlucirga dna doof ytironim hgih ,tnarg dnal-non dna ]9017 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS rof spihswollef/stnarg rof ytilibigile sdnapxE tnarg dnal sekam APTERAN fo 7141 .ceS ]1017 .ceS[ .snoitutitsni )ACGLN( ]2513 .C.S.U 7[ erutlucirga fo egelloc tnarg dnal-non ot ]7017 .ceS[ .snoitutitsni snoitutitsni RRACSA morf mret eht segnahc .snoitutitsni RRACSA rof margorp tnarg gnivres-cinapsiH dna ,snoitutitsni dna ;]8317 .ceS[ snoitutitsni RRACSA gnidliub-yticapac wen a rof yrassecen sa 4991 dna 0981 rof smargorp tnarg ot stnarg gnidliub-yticapac sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN smus hcus fo noitairporppa eht sezirohtuA gnidliub-yticapac dezirohtua wal roirP )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]a163 ]4037 .ceS[ .sdnuf tcA hctaH rof elbigile eb ]3157 .C.S.U 7[ .seirotirret .S.U/setats eht ni ot CDU rof redro ni aibmuloC fo tcirtsiD .ceS[ .sdnuf tcA hctaH rof tnemeriuqer hcraeser larutlucirga rof gnidnuf laredef ]4047 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA eht morf sdnuf gnihctam %05 seriuqeR sdnuf gnihctam eht morf CDU stpmexE sezirohtua 7881 fo tcA hctaH ehT ]3241 .tatS 88[ .snoitpecxe niatrec htiw ,noitutitsni tnarg ]2157 .ceS[ .)PENFE( margorP noitacudE dnal a sa CDU setangised )174-39 .L.P( ]7147 ]3137 .ceS[ noitirtuN dna dooF dednapxE eht tcA noitazinagroeR noitacudE yradnoces .ceS[ .stnarg PENFE rof elbigile CDU sekaM .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS rof sdnuf eviecer ot elbigile CDU sekaM -tsoP cilbuP aibmuloC fo tcirtsiD ehT ]2127 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht ]b2223 ]4217 .ceS[ .CDU ta seitilicaf yllaunna 000,057$ fo snoitairporppa .C.S.U 7[ .snoitutitsni 0981 eht ta seitilicaf ecneics doof dna erutlucirga edargpu ot ]0207 .ceS[ sezirohtua dna ,seitilicaf edargpu ecneics doof dna erutlucirga edargpu ot snoitairporppa launna ni 000,057$ sezirohtuA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS ot stnarg rof CDU ot ytilibigile sdnetxE stnarg sezirohtua APTERAN fo 7441 .ceS ]4027 ]2513 .C.S.U 7[ .noitacude secneics ]6017 .ceS[ .spihswollef dna stnarg noitacude larutlucirga dna doof rof seitisrevinu dna .ceS[ .stnarg noitacude secneics larutlucirga ]4007 .ceS[ eviecer ot elbigile eb )CDU( aibmuloC fo segelloc tnarg dnal ot spihswollef/stnarg dna doof rof etepmoc ot elbigile CDU sekaM .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS tcirtsiD eht fo ytisrevinU eht taht seificepS sezirohtua APTERAN fo 7141 .ceS snoitutitsnI hcraeseR niatreC gnitceffA snoisivorP ])a(3167.C.S.U ]1037 .ceS[ .slasoporp tnarg gniweiver 7[ .snoitacilppa tnarg noisnetxe ni sdnuf gnihctam fo ytilibaliava eht fo dna hcraeser fo weiver tirem dna noitaredisnoc tibihorp ot AREERA sdnemA .noisivorp oN .noisivorp oN reep sezirohtua AREERA fo )a(301 .ceS ]1507 .ceS[ .noitacudE dna hcraeseR noitatropsnarT laruR dna larutlucirgA rof muitrosnoC eht ot stnarg rof 2102YF ]1133 .C.S.U 7[ .smargorp suoenallecsim ]9257 ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA hguorht yllaunna noillim 91$ sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN sezirohtua APTERAN fo K eltitbuS ]2017 .ceS[ .snoitazinagro recudorp erutlucauqa ,kcotsevil ,porc morf noitatneserper sddA .42 ot 13 morf srebmem ]3213 .C.S.U 7[ .draoB yrosivdA draoB fo rebmun eht secudeR .000,005$ ]1027 .ceS[ .yllaunna 000,005$ scimonocE dna ,noitacudE ,noisnetxE ot draoB yrosivdA eht rof snoitairporppa ]2007 .ceS[ ot 000,053$ morf draoB yrosivdA ,hcraeseR larutlucirgA lanoitaN eht launna mumixam eht sesaercnI .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS eht rof snoitairporppa dezirohtua sesaercnI sezirohtua APTERAN fo )1()g(8041 .ceS )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]5217 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht ]7327 .ceS[ .seitilicaf snoitairporppa launna ni noillim 8$ sezirohtua ecneics doof dna erutlucirga edargpu ]2223 .C.S.U 7[ dna ,snoitutitsni tnarg dnal aera ralusni ot ot saera ralusni ni snoitutitsni tnarg dnal .snoitutitsni 0981 ta seitilicaf edargpu ot ecnatsissa ezirohtua ot APTERAN sdnemA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ot stnarg rof yllaunna noillim 8$ sezirohtuA stnarg sezirohtua APTERAN fo 7441 .ceS ]285 .C.S.U ]0137 .ceS[ 61[ .smargorp hcraeser yrtserof niatrec .sdnuf hcraeser yrtserof sinnetS-eritnIcM sezirohtua )887-78 .L.P( tcA yrtseroF ]2147 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA rof elbigile snoitutitsni 0981 eht sekaM .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN evitarepooC sinnetS-eritnIcM ehT ]3047 .ceS[ .ylevititepmoc ]3037 .ceS[ dedrawa eb ot )eno si teNREFYC hcihw fo( .)teNREFYC( sdnuf krowteN hcraeseR dna ]343 .C.S.U 7[ .smargorp noisnetxe etats sdnuf noisnetxe sisahpme laiceps )d(3 reveL noitacudE seilimaF dna ,htuoY ,nerdlihC evitarepooc rof sdnuf laredef sezirohtua -htimS seriuqeR .noisivorp etaneS stpodA eht rof elbigile snoitutitsni 0981 sekaM .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN )noisnetxe( tcA reveL-htimS eht fo 3 .ceS ]7217 .ceS[ .secruos laredef-non morf sdnuf gnihctam ]d2223 .C.S.U 7[ .7002YF ni level lauqe gnidivorp fo tnemeriuqer tnerruc yfiralc gnihctam %001 eht gnihcaer ,snoitutitsni dna wal tnenamrep etadpu ot APTERAN ]0227 .ceS[ .segelloc 0981 0981 eht ta noisnetxe dna hcraeser rof sdnema dna 2102YF hguorht segelloc eht ta noisnetxe dna hcraeser rof sdnuf sdnuf alumrof laredef rof sdnuf gnihctam 0981 eht ta noisnetxe dna hcraeser rof ]2207 .ceS[ laredef ot hctam %001 a edivorp setats etats gnisaercni ni esahp ot 9441 .ceS tnemeriuqer sdnuf gnihctam %001 sdnetxE .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS taht tnemeriuqer eht tnenamrep sekaM APTERAN dednema llib mraf 2002 ehT ]6107 .ceS[ .hcraeser esaesid ]6913 .C.S.U 7[ .gnidnuf esaesid/htlaeh dna htlaeh lamina rof gnidnuf eviecer ot lamina rof elbigile era snoitutitsni ]0217 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA elbigile era snoitutitsni 0981 taht seificepS .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN hcihw senifed APTERAN fo )b(4341 .ceS ]2223 .C.S.U 7[ .seitisrevinu 2681 eht ta hcraeser rof detairporppa tnuoma ]6127 eht fo %52 tsael ta eb snoitutitsni .ceS[ sloohcs 2681 eht ta hcraeser rof 0981 eht ta hcraeser rof troppus laredef detairporppa tnuoma eht fo %03 ot sloohcs )2( dna ,]1223 .C.S.U 7[ seitisrevinu 2681 0981 eht ta hcraeser )2( dna ,]5127 .ceS[ ta noisnetxe rof detairporppa tnuoma smargorp noisnetxe 2681 rof detairporppa eht fo %51 tsael ta eb snoitutitsni tnuoma eht fo %02 ot snoitutitsni 0981 eht ta noisnetxe rof troppus laredef ]2217-1217 .ceS[ ]8107-7107 .ceS[ 0981 eht ta noisnetxe )1( rof troppus )1( taht eriuqer ot )2()a(4441 .ceS .noisivorp etaneS dna esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot lacitnedI laredef deriuqer fo level eht sesaercnI APTERAN dednema llib mraf 2002 ehT )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS gnivres-cinapsiH tifeneb ot margorp tnarg rof 2102YF hguorht snoitairporppa tnarg evititepmoc a dna ,margorp gnidliub sezirohtuA .troppus lanoitutitsni -yticapac lanoitutitsni ,dnuf tnemwodne ]4207 .ceS[ cisab rof snoitutitsni gnivres-cinapsiH na hsilbatse ot APTERAN sdnemA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS rof dnuf tnemwodne na sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]1423 ]3207 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht yllaunna .C.S.U 7[ .7002YF hguorht snoitairporppa noillim 04$ ot snoitairporppa rof ytirohtua ni yllaunna noillim 02$ dezirohtua eht sesaercni dna ;stnarg gninehtgnerts dna ,yticapac lanoitacude nehtgnerts rof etepmoc snoitutitsni gnivres-cinapsiH ]1227 .ceS[ .yllaunna noillim 02$ ta 2102YF ot snoitutitsni gnivres-cinapsiH ot ]8217 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA taht eriuqer ot APTERAN sdnemA hguorht margorp tnarg eht sezirohtuA stnarg sezirohtua APTERAN fo 5541 .ceS ]5067 .ceS[ .snoitutitsni tnemllorne ]2513 .C.S.U 7[ .snoitutitsni -ytironim hgih ot edam eb yam spihswollef tnemllorne-ytironim hgih ta gnihcaet ]5007 .ceS[ dna stnarg hcihw rof sesoprup eht dna hcraeser rof stnarg gnidliub-yticapac ]7017 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS fo eno sa gnidliub-yticapac noisnetxe sddA sezirohtua APTERAN fo )4()b(7141 .ceS ]4067 .ceS[ .sdnuf PENFE eviecer ot ytilibigile s'CDU sehsilbatse dna ;3102YF retfa setats ot sdnuf etubirtsid ]5713 .C.S.U 7[ .level ]6117 ot alumrof a sehsilbatse ;3102YF hguorht s'raey suoiverp eht fo ssecxe ni )PENFE( .ceS[ .tnuoma esab a sa000,001$ eviecer ot snoitutitsni 0981 eht rof segatnecrep margorP noitacudE noitirtuN dna noitutitsni hcae sezirohtuA .yllaunna noillim .llib esuoH gnidnuf muminim stes ;noitutitsni tnarg dooF dednapxE eht rof noitairporppa 09$ ot snoitairporppa fo noitazirohtua eht ni snoisivorp elbarapmoc rehto niatnoc dnal hcae ot sdnuf PENFE ni noitubirtsid launna yna fo noitubirtsid rof eht esaercni ot APTERAN sdnemA .]7147 ton seod llib ehT ]3137 .ceS[ .sdnuf PENFE launna 000,001$ muminim a stes ;noillim alumrof a dna level noitubirtsid muminim .ceS[sdnuf PENFE eviecer ot elbigile si CDU eviecer ot ytilibigile s'CDU sehsilbatsE 09$ fo snoitairporppa launna sezirohtuA a stes APTERAN fo )B()2()c(5241 .ceS ]1407 .ceS[ ]4027 .ceS[ .)IH ,KA( noiger .sevitaitini noisnetxe dna hcraeser ytiroirp cificaP naciremA eht ni snoitutitsni tnarg -hgih fo tsil eht ot noigeR cificaP-naciremA dnal ta smargorp noitacude dna ,noisnetxe ]1133 .C.S.U 7[ .smargorp suoenallecsim eht ni tnempoleveD larutlucirgA sddA ,hcraeser rof margorp tnarg a sehsilbatsE noisivorp elbarapmoc oN sezirohtua APTERAN fo K eltitbuS ]8307 .ceS[ .yrassecen sa smus hcus fo snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .snisab cificaP dna naebbiraC eht neewteb ]4027 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht 2761 .ceS yllauqe dedivid dna snoitutitsni tnarg ]i054 .C.S.U fo noitazirohtua sdnetxE .llib mraf 0991 eht dnal aera ralusni eht ot detimil margorp 7[ .saera ralusni .S.U ni snoitutitsni tnarg fo 2761 .ceS rednu sevitaitini noisnetxe dna tnarg evititepmoc hcraeseR larutlucirgA dnal eht ot margorp tnarg hcraeseR hcraeser ytiroirp-hgih fo tsil eht ot hcraeseR laciportbuS dna laciporT a rof ytirohtua laicepS eht rednu dedivorp si hcraeser larutlucirgA laciportbuS dna laciporT sddA sdda ,smargorp suoenallecsim nihtiW .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN laciportbus dna laciport rof gnidnuF )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]0147 .ceS[ .)2102YF ]9037 .ceS[ -8002YF( snoitairporppa launna ni noillim 03$ .noitcudorp cinagro ]f9133 sezirohtuA .2102-0102YF ni sdnuf yrotadnam deifitrec ot trevnoc ohw srehcnar/sremraf .C.S.U 7[ .margorp tnempoleveD rehcnaR ni noillim 91$ dna ,9002YF ni margorp eht rof stnarg stimrep ;2102YF hguorht noillim dna remraF gninnigeB eht dehsilbatse rof sdnuf yrotadnam ni noillim 81$ sedivorP 03$ fo snoitairporppa launna sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN llib mraf 2002 eht fo 5047 .ceS ]8067 .ceS[ .tekram doof .S.U eht fo erahs sti htiw etarusnemmoc tsael ta ]5057 .ceS[ eb erutlucirga cinagro no hcraeser SRA rof .snoisivorp etaneS dna esuoH seteleD .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS gnidnuf esuoh- ni taht ssergnoC fo esneS .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]0137 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht sdnuf yrotadnam ni yllaunna noillim ]5295 .C.S.U 7[ 52$ sedivorp dna ;noillim 52$ fo 2102YF .evitaitini ]6027 .ceS[ .2102YF-9002YF ]4017 .ceS[ hguorht snoitairporppa launna sezirohtuA noisnetxe dna hcraeser erutlucirga ni sdnuf yrotadnam ni noillim 87$ fo latot .evitaitini noisnetxe dna hcraeser cinagro .gnimraf cinagro ot detius seiteirav cinagro na troppus ot sdnuf yrotadnam a sedivorP .sisahpme margorp fo saera wen eht troppus ot 2102YF hguorht sdnuf tnalp wen no dna gnimraf cinagro fo tcapmi ni yllaunna noillim 3$ sedivorp ,dednema gninrecnoc egaugnal llib esuoH eht stcelfeR yrotadnam ni yllaunna noillim 61$ sedivorP latnemnorivne eht no sisahpme sddA sa ,tca mraf 0991 eht fo B2761 .ceS hcraeseR larutlucirgA cinagrO ]3227 .ceS[ .seicnega etats ro laredef ]1923 .C.S.U 7[ htiw stnemeerga evitarepooc gnitsixe htiw .smargorp ]0317 snoitutitsni ot ytiroirp seviG .snoitutitsni gnihcaet dna ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser .ceS[ .smargorp lanoitanretni fo sesoprup eht gnivres-cinapsiH ot smargorp gnihcaet lanoitanretni ni etapicitrap ot snoitutitsni ot ytilibaliava doof dna ,noitirtun ,regnuh-itna ]5207 .ceS[ dna ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser lanoitanretni tnarg dnal dna seicnega ADSU sdda dna noisivorp etaneS dna esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS ni noitapicitrap rof ytilibigile sdnetxE sezirohtua APTERAN fo 8541 .ceS ]4327 .ceS[ .5691 fo tcA noitacudE rehgiH eht ni si ti sa ,cinapsiH %52 ]9501 tsael ta gnieb stneduts fo tnemllorne latot .C.S.U 02[ .5691 fo tcA noitacudE rehgiH eht no desab eno ot alumrof a no desab eht fo )1()b(613 .ceS ni dnuof alumrof ]1017 .ceS[ ]1007 .ceS[ eno morf APTERAN ni noitutitsni gnivres a no desab si APTERAN ni "noitutitsni .noisivorp etaneS dna esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS -cinapsiH a fo noitinifed eht segnahC gnivres-cinapsiH" fo noitinifed ehT ]9217 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht detairporppa eb ot sdnuf yrassecen sezirohtua ]2227 .ceS[ .snoitutitsni 2681 ta stcejorp ;seitisrevinu dna segelloc larutlucirga noisnetxe evitaroballoc rof dna smargorp )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS stcudorp desaboib poleved ot stcejorp tolip tcudnoc ot stnemeerga evitarepooc 4037 .ceS[ ]3047 etavirp-cilbup sezirohtua )AREERA( .noisivorp etaneS dna esuoH stpodA ]4027 .ceS[ .noisivorp lacitnedi na sniatnoC .ceS[ .2102 hguorht ytirohtua siht sdnetxE tca hcraeser 8991 eht fo 404 .ceS ]4017 .ceS[ ]3027 .ceS[ .snoitadnemmocer .draoB yrosivdA eht ot eettimmocbus ygrene tegdub dna sdeen hcraeser gninrecnoc elbawener tnenamrep a fo tnemhsilbatse draoB yrosivdA eht ot troper ot eht ezirohtua ot APTERAN sdnemA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN eettimmoc ygrene elbawener a sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN hcraeseR ygreneoiB ]5327 .ceS[ .)noitcudorp ]5513 .C.S.U 7[ .erutlucirga dna doof ]9007 .ceS[ porc ytlaiceps htiw setats ni esitrepxe no sisylana ycilop cilbup dna hcraeser .seitivitca ytisrevinu no gniward( hcraeser ycilop porc tnednepedni tcudnoc ot slaudividni dna 'sretnec eseht rof sucof ytiroirp a sa seussi ytlaiceps ni gnizilaiceps etutitsni yralloroc ,snoitaroproc ,snoitutitsni lanoitacude ycilop sporc ytlaiceps sddA .ytirohtua a hsilbatse ot )sdnuf laredef yb detroppus cilbup dna etavirp htiw stnemeerga gnitsixe rednu stnarg eviecer ot elbigile trap ni ,etutitsni hcraeser cimonoce evitaroballoc rehto dna stnarg fo yteirav sa sretnec hcraeser ycilop desab-ytisrevinu desab-ytisrevinu a( etutitsnI hcraeseR ediw a otni retne ot yraterceS eht ]1117 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA ruof yficeps ot APTERAN sdnemA yciloP larutlucirgA dna dooF eht seriuqeR sezirohtua APTERAN fo A9141 noitceS ]1157 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht sdnuf yrotadnam ni yllaunna noillim 52$ htiw ,yrassecen sa noitairporppa sezirohtua ;ecudorp tuc-hserf fo .smargorp larumartxe dna -artni ytefas eht evorpmi ot smargorp tnemelpmi htob ni dedulcni si dna ,aera noissim .evoba ,1137 .ceS dna ngised ot srehto/seitisrevinu ot stnarg noitacude dna ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser ni sisahpme hcraeser ytefas doof a sedulcnI .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN evititepmoc ekam ot ADSU sezirohtuA s'ADSU fo trap si hcraeser ytefas dooF ]1147 ]1137 .ceS[ .stnarg hcraeser ytefas .ceS[ .sdnuf yrotadnam ni yllaunna noillim ]5295 .C.S.U 7[ doof porc ytlaiceps rof sdnuf yrotadnam 512$ sedivorp ;2102YF hguorht noillim .aera hcraeser ni noillim 52$ sedivorp ;evitaitini hcraeser ]1127 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht 001$ fo snoitairporppa launna sezirohtuA ytiroirp-hgih a sa sporc ytlaiceps no porc ytlaiceps a rof doirep raey-evif a revo sdnuf yrotadnam ni yllaunna noillim 61$ .)AREERA( tca hcraeser 8991 eht ot stnarg noisnetxe dna hcraeser sezirohtua sdnuf yrotadnam ni noillim 032$ sedivorP sezirohtua tub ,llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS evitaitini hcraeser porc ytlaiceps wen sddA tca mraf 0991 eht fo 2761 .ceS ])c(a3213 .C.S.U 7[ ]4027 .ceS[ .rotces porc ytlaiceps .sdeen hcraeser no draoB yrosivdA eht fo sisylana evisneherpmoc a edulcni eht mrofni ot eettimmoc porc ytlaiceps ot draoB yrosivdA eht sedivorp eettimmoc a dehsilbatse )564-801 .L.P( 4002 fo ]3017 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN porc ytlaiceps eht taht noitamrofni dnapxE tcA ssenevititepmoC porC ytlaicepS ehT hcraeseR sporC ytlaicepS )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]61011 .ceS[ .stimrep hcus ekover dna tnarg ot ytirohtua eht sah erutlucirgA ]8017 .ceS[ .sesuriv evil fo tnemevom fo yraterceS eht ylno seifiralc ;baL dna noitatropmi eht revo noitercsid esnefed-orgA dna -oiB lanoitaN eht ta suriv ADSU sevig dna ,yrtsudni kcotsevil ]4257 .ceS[ .egaugnal lareneg erom esaesiD htuoM dna tooF evil no krow rof eht ot taerht a etutitsnoc taht sesaesid htiw baL esnefed-orgA dna -oiB lanoitaN nret )SHD( ytiruceS dnalemoH fo tnemtrapeD no hcraeser tcudnoc ,seirotarobal esaesid eht secalper tub ,noisivorp etaneS stpodA eht ot timrep a eussi ot ADSU seriuqeR lamina hsilbatse ot ADSU sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN snoisivorP hcraeseR rehtO ]2137 .ceS[ .yrassecen sa noitairporppa sezirohtua ;gnirutcafunam repap dna plup dna ,ygrene elbawener ,ygreneoib ni ecrofkrow a gniniart troppus ot sretnec lacinhcet dna segelloc ytinummoc larur ]3407 .ceS[ ot elbaliava stnarg sekam taht margorP ]7317 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS ygolonhceT laruR arE weN a sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]7027 .ceS[ .]5209 .ceS .S[ stcejorp noitartsnomed ygrene mraf )5( dna ;]2209 .ceS .S[ odaroloC ni yrotarobal a ta ygrene elbawener )4( ;]0109 .ceS .S[ stnemirepxe porc ssamoib lanoiger )3( ;]0209 .ceS .H[ kcotsdeef lonahte na sa nroc tnemelppus ot ssarghctiws dna muhgros teews gnisu )2( ;]1109 .ceS .S dna 0109 .ceS .H[ ygrene elbawener mraf-no )1( :no hcraeser gnizirohtua seltit ygrene tnemdnema etaneS ]0147 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht dna llib esuoH morf snoisivorp lanoitidda snoitairporppa ni yllaunna noillim 05$ ]4513 .C.S.U lareves setaroprocnI .noisivorp esuoH eht sezirohtuA .sleuf elbawener ot ssamoib fo 7[ .stcudorp tserof dna seitidommoc ni sa evitaitini hcraeser stcudorp desaboib noisrevnoc eht no desucof ,eciffO margorP larutlucirga morf snobracordyh dna ygreneoib a ezirohtua ot )AREERA( hcraeseR larutlucirgA lanoitaN eht lairtsudni dna slohocla fo gnitekram tca hcraeser 8991 eht sdnema dna ]0117 yb detanidrooc ,evitaitini hcraeser stcudorp dna noitcudorp no hcraeser rof stnarg .ceS[ APTERAN rednu ytirohtua eht slaepeR . noisivorp elbarapmoc oN desaboib dna ygreneoib a sehsilbatsE sezirohtua APTERAN fo 9141 noitceS ]4267 .C.S.U 7[ .yrassecen sa smus hcus fo noitairporppa eht sezirohtua dna ,laitnetop laicremmoc htiw )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]2137 .ceS[ .sdnuf detairporppa ]9057 .ceS[ .snoitairporppa laredef ]191 .C.S.U 02[ .muterobrA fo esu sdibrof tub ,muterobra eht ta nedrag gnisu ,muterobrA lanoitaN eht ta nedrag lanoitaN eht fo tnemhsilbatse ]5147 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA esenihC a fo noitcurtsnoc sezirohtua oslA esenihC a fo noitcurtsnoc eht sezirohtuA eht sezirohtua ,7291 ,4 hcraM fo tcA ehT ]6067 .ceS[ .smetsys hcraeser lanoitanretni dna slanoisseforp larutlucirga ngierof dna .S.U neewteb noitaroballoc etomorp .setutats tnereffid ]9317 .ceS[ .snoitairporppa launna ot margorP pihswolleF ygolonhceT dna lareves rednu elbaliava era yltnerruc dna margorp eht ezirohtua ot APTERAN ]2407 .ceS[ ecneicS larutlucirgA lanoitanretnI gualroB seitinutroppo egnahcxe hcraeser sdnema hcihw ,noisivorp etaneS stpodA .llib esuoH eht ot ralimiS a hsilbatse ot snoitairporppa sezirohtuA larutlucirga lanoitanretni fo rebmun A ]8047 .ceS[ ]0367 .C.S.U 7[ .7002YF hguorht .2102YF hguorht yrassecen sa snoitairporppa rof ytirohtua sedivorp smus hcus fo noitairporppa eht sezirohtua osla ;saera larur ni stcejorp tolip troppus ;sevlesmeht gnoma sdnuf tnarg etubirtsider ot spuorg htuoy lanoitan ruof ot stnarg ot snoitazinagro eht swolla ;snoitazinagro ekam ot sdnuf yrotadnam ni noillim 8$ fo ]9027 .ceS[ .2102YF htuoy ot stnarg gnikam ni ytilibixelf refsnart emit-eno a sedivorp )AREERA( ]9037 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA hguorht snoitairporppa sezirohtuaeR egaruocne ot tca 8991 eht sdnemA tca hcraeser 8991 eht fo 014 .ceS ]4027 .ceS[ ]5295 .C.S.U 7[ .wal wen eht ni seirogetac aera ytiroirp regral .saera eht ni eseht fo emos sedulcni ;llib mraf 0991 cipot ytiroirp hgih fo yteirav a ni stcejorp eht ni detcane tsil eht morf saera deificeps ]5037 noisnetxe dna hcraeser rof stnarg niatrec setanimilE .stcejbus 32 dda ot saera ]2017 .ceS[ .saera noisnetxe dna hcraeser .ceS[.saera noisnetxe dna hcraeser ytiroirp ekam ot ADSU sezirohtua ,dednema ytiroirp fo stsil etaneS dna esuoH stpodA ytiroirp hgih fo tsil eht ot stcejbus 41 sddA hgih fo tsil eht ot stcejbus wen enin sddA sa ,llib mraf 0991 eht fo )e(2761 .ceS ]5017 .ceS[ .SEERSC ot derrefsnart neeb dah taht ]3007 .ceS[ ]1513 .C.S.U 7[ .saera devres-rednu dnuf ecivreS noitcepsnI dna ytefaS dooF eht .noitatnemelpmi margorp ni sdoirep emit detimil rof evres ot eerga ot nruter ot ADSU seriuqeR .ytiroirp evah fo sesahp laitini ni saera larur ni segatrohs ohw setaudarg loohcs lacidem yraniretev segatrohs renoititcarp lamina dexim dna egral renoititcarp lamina dexim dna egral rovaf fo snaol loohcs eht yarfed ot margorp taht seifiralc dna noisivorp etaneS stpodA ot ADSU eriuqer ot margorp sdnemA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN a sezirohtua APTERAN fo A5141 .ceS ]8057 .ceS[ .TM ,namezoB ni ytilicaf .hcraeser esaesid dna htlaeh lamina SRA eruces esaesid lamina rof bal ytiruces-oib tsehgih -oib level-rehgih a tcurtsnoc ot 2102YF eht yltnerruc si ,awoI ,semA ni retneC .noisivorp etaneS seteleD hguorht yllaunna noillim 61$ sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN esaesiD laminA lanoitaN SRA ehT ]3127 .ceS[ .sdnuf eseht eviecer ])a(5913 .C.S.U 7[ ot elbigile snoitutitsni gnoma noitarepooc .hcraeser esaesid dna htlaeh lamina ]8117 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN egaruocne ot yraterceS eht seriuqeR sezirohtua APTERAN fo )a(3341 .ceS )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]9307 .ceS[ .sdnuf gnihctam seriuqer ;)ytilibaniatsus yrtluop .lcni( ]4027 .ceS[ .saera seitidommoc larutlucirga rof ecnellecxe noisnetxe dna hcraeser ytiroirp hgih fo tsil fo sretnec lanoiger hsilbatse ot snoitutitsni eht ot ecnellecxe fo sretnec lanoiger sddA tnarg dnal rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]2507 .ceS[ .enicidem ]4027 .ceS[ .saera noisnetxe yraniretev smetsys doof ni ecnellecxe dna hcraeser ytiroirp hgih fo tsil eht fo sretnec lanoiger hsilbatse ot stnarg ot enicidem yraniretev smetsys doof sddA evititepmoc rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]0317 .ceS[ .noitacude ]0507 .ceS[ .seitivitca noitirtun dna ,noisnetxe ,hcraeser larutlucirga dna regnuh-itna lanoitanretni no hcraeser lanoitanretni rof noitazirohtua eht tiforpnon troppus ot noitairporppa ot noisivorp etaneS eht fo sesoprup eht sddA launna noillim 1$ a sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]9407 .ceS[ .secruos laiborcim dna ,eniram ,tnalp morf slacimehcirga dna slacituecamrahp poleved ot margorp ]5257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA hcraeser a rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]7307 .ceS[ ]8027 .ceS[ .esabatad tnemeganam .gniniart tnemeganam laicnanif a etaerc dna slliks tnemeganam laicnanif mraf evorpmi ot dna esabatad mraf evorpmi ot stnarg noisnetxe gnikramhcneb cilbup a etaerc ot retneC dna hcraeser evititepmoc sezirohtuA tnemeganaM mraF lanoitaN a sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]8047 .ceS[ .sreerac/noitacude htam dna ,gnireenigne ,ygolonhcet ,ecneics ni saera larur morf seitironim detneserper .)saera noisnetxe dna -rednu/nemow fo noitapicitrap esaercni hcraeser ytiroirp hgih( 4027 .ceS ni dedulcnI ot stnarg rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]7407 .ceS[ .)saera noisnetxe dna .hcaertuo/noitacude ytefas mraf troppus hcraeser ytiroirp hgih( 4027 .ceS ni dedulcnI ot stnarg rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]6407 .ceS[ .saera emocni -wol ni stcejorp doof ytinummoc ot sdees elbategev detanod etubirtsid ot stiforpnon ]1133 .C.S.U 7[.smargorp suoenallecsim ]3257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA ot stnarg rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN sezirohtua APTERAN fo K eltitbuS )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS gnitomorp ni seicilop erutlucirga tnerruc ]4713 .C.S.U 7[ fo ycaciffe eht fo noitanimaxe hcraeser .evitaitini hcraeser noitirtun namuh ]3117 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN noitirtun namuh fo sucof a sa sddA a sezirohtua APTERAN fo )b(4241 .ceS ]3127 .ceS[ .sgniteem lanoitan/lanoiger ]5913 .C.S.U ]9117 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH raluger hguorht hcraeser esaesid/htlaeh 7[ .hcraeser esaesid dna htlaeh lamina eht sniatnoC .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN lamina rof seitiroirp gnittes segaruocnE sezirohtua APTERAN fo 3341 .ceS ]3117 .ceS[ .hcraeser noitirtun namuh ADSU rof troppus retaerg .noisivorp seteleD .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN eb dluohs ereht taht ssergnoC fo esneS .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]2117 .ceS[ .feeB rof koobdnaH noitisopmoC tneirtuN s'ADSU etadpu .noisivorp seteleD .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ot tnarg a rof snoitairporppa sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]0117 .ceS[ .gniniart hcus fo sredivorp ytrap-driht fo noitacifitrec eht sezirohtuA .emiger yrotaluger hcetoib s'ADSU ni gniniart eviecer ot sporc hcetoib .noisivorp seteleD noisivorp elbarapmoc oN no hcraeser gnitcudnoc stsitneics seriuqeR .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]1117 .ceS[ .amohalkO fo ytisrevinU eht ot ytilicaf oneR lE eht ta dnal esael ot ADSU sezirohtuA ]9017 .ceS[ .KO ,oneR lE ni yrotarobaL ]3057 dna 2057 .ceS[ hcraeseR sdnalgnizarG eht ta seitilicaf .snoisivorp esuoH stpodA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ro dnal fo gnisopsid morf ADSU stibihorP .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]1507 .ceS[ .sessenisub larur ]9257 .ceS[ .stroffe dna srecudorp gnicaf seussi scitsigol dna evitaroballoc ot ytiroirp evig ot egaugnal noitatropsnart larutlucirga dna larur lacitirc lanoitidda htiw noisivorp etaneS stpodA no gnisucof margorp tnarg a sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]6257 .ceS[ .noitacifisrevid dna tnempoleved ygrene desaboib larur rof stnarg evititepmoc gnikam margorp tnarG nuS a retsinimda ot sretnec lanoiger xis sehsilbatsE .noisivorp oN .noisivorp oN ]4407 .ceS[ .srecudorp .S.U ot smargorp laroivaheb edivorp ot krowten ecnatsissa ]2257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA sserts hcnar dna mraf a sehsilbatsE .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS etats dna laredef rof ytirohtua yrotutats -citoibitna no hcraeser detegrat rof lareneg rednu dezirohtua si kcotsevil ni ]1257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA margorp tnarg evititepmoc a sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN airetcab tnatsiser-citoibitna no hcraeseR ]6137 .ceS[ .tuo desael eb ot yrarbiL larutlucirgA lanoitaN eht dna retnec hcraeser SRA eht ta ytreporp ]1796 .C.S.U 7[ .seicnega wolla ot margorp tolip a sezirohtuA hcraeser niatrec fo tnemngilaer dna ]4137 .ceS[ .)msalpmreg ,sdees rof tpecxe( regrem eht gnidulcni ,ADSU dezinagroer stcudorp tnalp dna ,stnalp ,stcudorp )453-301 .L.P( tcA noitazirohtuaeR lamina ,slamina s'SRA fo esopsid esiwrehto erutlucirgA fo tnemtrapeD dna mrofeR ]8047 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA ro ,lles ,egnahcxe ot ytirohtua ADSU seviG .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ecnarusnI porC laredeF eht ,4991 nI ]2117 .ceS[ .snoitutitsni ]8037 .ceS[ .srebmem gnoma sdnuf ]2423 .C.S.U 7[ .snoitutitsni gnivres gnivres-naiiawaH evitaN dna -evitaN etacolla ot dna ,noitutitsni rebmem hcae -naiiawaH evitaN dna -evitaN aksalA aksalA ta margorp stnarg noitacude eht fo rof stnega lacsif etangised ot snoitutitsni ta noitacude rof stnarg sezirohtua )7-601 noitazirohtuaer ot egaugnal llib etaneS sddA fo aitrosnoc naksalA eht stimreP .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN .L.P( tca snoitairporppa 0002YF s'ADSU ]2467 .C.S.U 7[ .knabataD ecnadiovA ]3127 .ceS[ .2102YF hguorht noillim eudiseR laminA dooF eht sezirohtua ,tca ]2137 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA 5.2$ fo snoitairporppa launna sezirohtuA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN hcraeser 8991 eht ,AREERA fo 406 .ceS ]6007 .ceS[ .raey rep edam eb drawa ]2513 .C.S.U 7[ .sdrawA gnihcaeT hsac eno tsael ta seriuqer dna margorp secneicS larutlucirgA dna dooF lanoitaN ]8017 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA drawa eht ot hcraeser dna noisnetxe sddA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN a sezirohtua APTERAN fo )i(7141 .ceS ]5027 .ceS[ ]7037 .ceS[ .evitaitini ]5295 .C.S.U .evitaitini noisnetxe dna hcraeser noisnetxe dna hcraeser tnemeganam 7[ .evitaitini noisnetxe dna hcraeser tnemeganam tneirtun eht gnizirohtuaer tneirtun eht fo sesoprup eht ot snrecnoc tnemeganam tneirtun a sezirohtua noitces ot egaugnal llib esuoH sddA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN lanoiger dna etsaw elttac yriad sddA ,dednema sa ,llib mraf 0991 ehT ]4037 .ceS[ .seigolonhcet ]4027 .ceS[ .nixotalfa no stcejorp lortnoc gnizilaicremmoc dna gnivorpmi ]5295 noisnetxe dna hcraeser ytiroirp hgih rof ot nixotalfa gnillortnoc morf noisnetxe .C.S.U 7[ .nixotalfa no noisnetxe dna ytirohtua eht ot egaugnal llib esuoH eht sddA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN dna hcraeser nixotalfa fo sucof eht segnahC hcraeser sezirohtua llib mraf 0991 ehT ]5295 .C.S.U 7[ .slasoporp hcraeser evitaroballoc ytiroirp-hgih ot ytiroirp gnidnuf ]3037 .ceS[ .stnarg hcraeser evitaroballoc evig ot ADSU segaruocne ,dednema ]3027 .ceS[ .noisivorp esuoH stpodA .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ot ytiroirp gnidnuf evig ot ADSU seriuqeR sa ,llib mraf 0991 eht fo )d(2761 .ceS ]6327 .ceS[ .snoitalupop degatnavdasid yllacimonoce fo eraflew dna htlaeh eht )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]1317 .ceS[ noitacude dna ecneics larutlucirga lanoitanretni rof stnarg evititepmoC-- ]6217 .ceS[ sretnec lautriv gniniart dna hcraeser lanoitaN-- ]3217 .ceS[ ytisrevinU eegeksuT .lcni ,segelloc tnarg dnal 0981 ta seitilicaf secneics doof dna larutlucirga edargpu ot stnarG-- ]7117.ceS[ hcraeser esaesid dna htlaeh lamina gniunitnoC-- ]5117 .ceS[ hcraeser larutlucirga/lacidem enibmoc ot margorp hcraeser toliP-- ]4117 .ceS[ margorp hcraeser noitomorp htlaeh dna noitnevretni noitirtun namuH-- .sesac emos ni noisivorp elbarapmoC .sesac emos ni noisivorp elbarapmoC .wal roirp rednu margorP snoitazirohtuA margorP dednetxE ]2057 .ceS[ .noissim hcraeser s'ADSU ot detaler ton tub ,retneC ygolonhceT noitamrofnI lanoitaN dna retneC .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ecnaniF lanoitaN eht gninrecnoc noisivorP .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]2057 .ceS[ .ycilop hcraeser tceffa yltcerid ton seod tub ,ecivreS tseroF eht dna SRA rof sessecorp gnirih ]8257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA dna tnemtiurcer eht gninrecnoc noisivorP .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]7057 .ceS[ .)klim ylralucitrap( slamina denolc morf sdoof fo ytefas eht )2( dna ;slamina denolc morf stcudorp rof stekram lanoitanretni dna citsemod .noisivorp seteleD )1( :no troper a eraperp ot ADSU seriuqeR .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]4057 .ceS[ .snoitadnemmocer ekam ot dna ,doof suoitirtun dna elbadroffa ot ssecca detimil htiw .S.U eht ni saera fo ecnelaverp eht no ,seicnega laredef rehto htiw noitanidrooc ]7257 .ceS[ .noisivorp etaneS stpodA ni ,troper a eraperp ot ADSU stceriD .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN .noisivorp elbarapmoc oN ]7137 .ceS[ .kcotsevil ni airetcab tnatsiser .hcraeser larutlucirga )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]0137 .ceS[ seirtnuoc gnipoleved rof tnempoleved dna hcraeser ygolonhcetoib larutlucirgA-- ]8037 .ceS[ margorp lortnoc esaesid s'enhoJ enivoB-- ]7037 .ceS[ stnarg muraenimarg muirasuF-- ]6037 .ceS[ margorp stnarg evititepmoc noisnetxe dna ,noitacude ,hcraeser detargetnI-- ]2127 .ceS[ esuohgniraelC retneC noitamrofnI laruR lanoitaN-- ]0127 .ceS[ seitilibasid htiw sremraf rof margorp ygolonhcet evitsissA-- ]2027 .ceS[ metsyS noitamrofnI rehtaeW larutlucirgA lanoitaN-- ]1027 .ceS[ margorp secruoser citeneg lanoitaN-- ]3417 .ceS[ noitacude rehgih fo snoitutitsni aera ralusni rof margorp stnarg noitacude ecnatsid & noitcurtsni tnediseR-- ]2417 .ceS[ esnopser/gninnalp ytirucesoib rof noitazirohtuA-- ]1417 .ceS[ stnarg dnalegnaR-- ]0417 .ceS[ smargorp ecnatsissa erutlucauqA-- ]6317 .ceS[ sporc evitanretla dna latnemelppuS-- ]5317 .ceS[ ecivreS noisnetxE-- ]4317 .ceS[ hcraeser ytisrevinU-- ]3317 .ceS[ stnarg tnempiuqE-- )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ]1147 .ceS[ noitpmusnoc namuh rof doof gnicudorp ni ygolonhcetoib fo esu eht gnidrager noitacude cilbuP-- ]4037 .ceS[ stcudorp desaboiB-- ]3037 .ceS[ erutlucirga noisicerP-- ]2037 .ceS[ hcraeser ytilauq tcudorp larutlucirga eulav hgih rof spihsrentraP-- ]1127 .ceS[ sesaesid eeb yenoh no hcraeseR-- ]9027 .ceS[ margorp snoitacinummocelet larutlucirgA-- .sesac emos ni noisivorp elbarapmoC .sesac emos ni noisivorp elbarapmoC .wal roirp rednu margorP snoitazirohtuA margorP fo laepeR ]6147 .ceS[ 5891 fo stnemdnemA tcA yciloP gnihcaeT dna ,noisnetxE ,hcraeseR larutlucirgA lanoitaN-- ]4147 .ceS[ 0891 fo tcA erutlucauqA lanoitaN-- ]7047 .ceS[ 0002 fo tcA noitcetorP ksiR larutlucirgA-- ]5047 .ceS[ tcA seitilicaF hcraeseR noitatS tnemirepxE larutlucirgA-- ]2047 .ceS[ 4991 fo tcA sutatS tnarG-dnaL lanoitacudE ni ytiuqE-- ]1047 .ceS[ tcA slairetaM larutlucirgA lacitirC-- ]3137 .ceS[ ycilop tnemeganam tsep fo eciffO-- )642-011 .L.P( )9142 .R.H( )9142 .R.H( 8002 fo tcA ygrenE tnemdnemA etutitsbuS lliB dessaP-esuoH yciloP/waL roirP dna ,noitavresnoC ,dooF dessaP-etaneS ¡ Renée Johnson Specialist in Agricultural Policy rjohnson@crs.loc.gov, 7-9588 This report is an updated and revised version of a report originally written by former CRS specialist Jean M. Rawson. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL34352