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GYTHIUM

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Originally appearing in Volume V12, Page 780 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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GYTHIUM , the See also:

harbour and See also:arsenal of See also:Sparta, from which it was some 30 M. distant. The See also:town See also:lay at the N.W. extremity of the Laconian Gulf, in a small but fertile See also:plain at the mouth of the Gythius. Its reputed founders were Heracles and See also:Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins: the former of these names maypoint to the See also:influence of Phoenician traders, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very See also:early See also:period. In classical times it was a community of See also:perioeci, politically dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal See also:life of its own. In 455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian See also:War, it was burned by the Athenian See also:admiral Tolmides. In 37o B.C. See also:Epaminondas besieged it unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were strengthened by the See also:tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested and taken by See also:Titus and See also:Lucius Quintius See also:Flamininus, and, though recovered by Nabis two or three years later, was re-captured immediately after his See also:murder (192 B.C.) by See also:Philopoemen and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean See also:League until its See also:dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most important of the Eleutherolaconian towns, a See also:group of twenty-four, later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their See also:autonomy against Sparta and declared See also:free by See also:Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy was the See also:general (vrparrly6s), who was assisted by a treasurer (raµtas), while the See also:chief magistrates of the several communities See also:bore the See also:title of ephors (fcbo pot). See also:Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has See also:left us a description of the town as it existed in the reign of See also:Marcus Aurelius, the See also:agora, the See also:Acropolis, the See also:island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where See also:Paris celebrated his nuptials with See also:Helen, the Migonium or See also:precinct of See also:Aphrodite Migonitis (occupied by the See also:modern town of Marathonisi or Gythium), .and the See also:hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it.

The numerous remains extant, of which the See also:

theatre and the buildings partially submerged by the See also:sea are the most See also:note-worthy, all belong to the See also:Roman period. The modern town is a busy and flourishing See also:port with a See also:good harbour protected by Cranae, now connected by a See also:mole with the mainland: it is the See also:capital of the prefecture (vogt6s) of Aaxwvucil with a See also:population in 1907 of 61,522. See G. See also:Weber, De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum See also:rebus navalibus (See also:Heidelberg, 1833) ; W. M. See also:Leake, Travels in the Morea, i. 244 See also:foil. ; E. See also:Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 267 foll. See also:Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage archeologique, ii. Nos.

238-248 f.; Collitz-Bechtel, Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften, 111. Nos. 4562-4573; See also:

British School See also:Annual, x. 179 foll. Excavations: 'A. Einhc, llpaxnua r;tr 'ApX. 'Eratpetas, 1891, 69 foil. (M. N. T.) GYULA-FEHERVAR (Ger. Karlsburg) , a town of See also:Hungary, in Transylvania, in the See also:county of Also-See also:Feller, 73 M.

S. of See also:

Kolozsvar by See also:rail. Pop. (1900) 11,507. It is situated on the right See also:bank of the Maros, on the outskirts of the Transylvanian See also:Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, and consists of the upper town, or citadel, and the See also:lower town. Gyula-Fehervar is the seat of a Roman See also:Catholic See also:bishop, and has a See also:fine Roman Catholic See also:cathedral, built in the 11th See also:century in Romanesque See also:style, and rebuilt in 1443 by See also:John Hunyady in See also:Gothic style. It contains among other tcmbs that of John Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal See also:palace, and in the same See also:part of the town is the Batthyaneum, founded by Bishop See also:Count See also:Batthyany in 1794. It contains a valuable library with many See also:incunabula and old See also:manuscripts, amongst which is one of the See also:Nibelungenlied, an astronomical See also:observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a See also:mineral collection. Gyula-Fehervar carries on an active See also:trade in cereals, See also:wine and See also:cattle. Gyula--Fehervar occupies the site of the Roman See also:colony Apulum. Many Roman See also:relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved in the museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 11th century by See also:King See also:Ladislaus I.

(1078--1095). In the 16th century, when Transylvania separated from Hungary, the town became the See also:

residence of the Transylvanian princes. From this period See also:dates the See also:castle, and also the buildings of the university, founded by See also:Gabriel See also:Bethlen, and now used•as See also:barracks. After the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the See also:Habsburg See also:monarchy the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the See also:emperor See also:Charles VI., whence the See also:German name of the town. H The eighth See also:symbol in the Phoenician See also:alphabet, as in its descendants, has altered less in the course of ages than most alphabetic symbols. From the beginning of Phoenician records it has consisted of two uprights connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the See also:cross bars are not so precisely arranged as they are in early See also:Greek and Latin inscrh Lions. In these the symbol takes the See also:form of two rectangles out of which the See also:ordinary H develops by the omission of the cross bars at See also:top and bottom. It is very exceptional for this See also:letter to have more than three cross bars, though as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. See also:Greece. Within the same inscription the See also:appearance of the letter often varies considerably as regards the space between and the length of the uprights. When only one See also:bar is found it regularly crosses the uprights about the See also:middle.

In a few cases the rectangle is closed at top and bottom but has no middle cross bar 0. The Phoenician name for the letter was Heth (Het). According to Semitic scholars it had two values, (1) a glottal spirant, a very strong h, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant like the German ch in ach. The Greeks borrowed it with the value of the ordinary aspirate and with the name '7'7r a. Very early in their See also:

history, however, most of the Greeks of See also:Asia See also:Minor lost the aspirate altogether, and having then no further use for the symbol with this value they adopted it to represent the See also:long e-See also:sound, which was not originally distinguished by a different symbol from the See also:short sound (see E). With this value its name has always been il-ra in Greek. The alphabet of the See also:Asiatic Greeks was gradually adopted elsewhere. In See also:official documents at See also:Athens H represented the rough breathing or aspirate ` till 403 B.c.; henceforth it was used for rl. The Western Greeks, however, from whom the See also:Romans obtained their alphabet, retained their aspirate longer than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol came to the Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the aspirate, which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the first or left-See also:hand See also:half of this letter F , while the smooth breathing ' was the right-hand portion -4. At See also:Tarentum I- is found for H in inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very slight sound which in some words where it was etymologically correct disappeared at an early date.

Thus the cognate words of kindred See also:

languages show that the See also:Lat. anser " See also:goose " ought to begin with h, but nowhere is it so found. In none of the See also:Romance languages is there any trace of initial or medial h, which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the aspirate by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its presence by the See also:Sabine forms where f occurred; as the Sabines said fasena (See also:sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought to be harena, and so for haedus (See also:goat), hordeum (See also:barley), &c. Between vowels h was lost very early, for ne-hemo (no See also:man) is throughout the literature nemo, bi-himus (two winters old) bimus. In the Ciceronian See also:age greater See also:attention was paid to reproducing the Greek aspirates in borrowed words, and this led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes which were satirized by See also:Catullus in his See also:epigram (84) upon Arrius, who said chommoda for commoda and hinsidias for insidias. In Umbrian h was often lost, and also used without etymological value to See also:mark length, as in comohota (=Lat. commota), a practice to which there are some doubtful See also:parallels in Latin. In See also:English the history of h is very similar to that in Latin. While the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a vowel, an aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal chords, sometimes, like the See also:pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable effort as a reaction against the tendency to " drop the h's." Though h survives in See also:Scotland, See also:Ireland and See also:America as well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the sound in most of the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. , Where it is not ordinarily lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as " Give it 'See also:im " and the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it onthe part of uneducated speakers See also:lead to absurd misplacements of h and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was pronounced, as humble (now recognized as See also:standard English), See also:humour and even See also:honour. (P. Gi.) HAAG, CARL (182o– ), a naturalized British painter, See also:court painter to the See also:duke of See also:Saxe-See also:Coburg and See also:Gotha, was See also:born in See also:Bavaria, and was trained in the See also:academies at Nuremhurg and See also:Munich.

He practised first as an illustrator and as a painter, in oil, of portraits and architectural subjects; but after he settled in See also:

England, in 1847, he devoted himself to See also:water See also:colours, and was elected See also:associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 185o and member in 1853. He travelled much, especially in the See also:East, and made a considerable reputation by his firmly See also:drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of Eastern subjects. Towards the end of his professional career Carl Haag quitted England and returned to See also:Germany. See A History of the " Old Water-See also:Colour " Society, now The Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, by John See also:Lewis Roget (2 vols., See also:London, 1891).

End of Article: GYTHIUM

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